戰國楚簡代詞研究

最近語言研究的觀點，從宏觀研究移到微視研究的方向，此研究方向越來越受到重視。具體的觀點和例子可證明語言的真實性，再依照微視觀點作進一步研究，理解為中國多民族的個別因素及獨立因素。漢語的多元性，是從古至今承下來的語言特色. 今日諸多研究者認為每個語言皆會與周邊語言相互影響並產生後續的互動。就歷史語言學角度而論，漢語的演變因素一般不僅與外因有關，而是受內因的影響。張敏認為依照 Dryer（1992）、Thomason（2001）的見解，不但由漢語的內部因素改變其基本語序，而且由外部因素影像給其基本語序。 Chu 認為基本語序是最難因語言接觸而改變的一種穩定語法屬性，而今日學者藉由世界多種語言分析得出其結果，乃語法特徵的擴散體現於語序上，進而Thomason認為最容易移借的語言成分是詞彙，其次是語序，故本論認為所謂語序是可闡明語言外因說的重要標誌。　　凡代詞為顯示語言類型的一種標誌（mark），本論文採用此觀點，試圖做句法及文獻比較分析。漢語具有錯綜複雜的衍生機制，並呈現自己語言的特殊來源及發展情況，所以要歸納其語言特徵並不簡單。但諸多學者早已發表不少文章，討論漢語的語言特徵，且根據句法分析，得到規則性的探究結果。本論文為發現漢語的多元性，據以戰國楚簡分析漢語的衍生及句法傾向，乃試圖歸納上古漢語及戰國楚簡的的句法特徵。首先，第一章第一節討論戰國楚簡代詞研究的目的及動機，第二節繼續探討其研究範圍，乃限定於戰國楚簡內，上海博物館藏戰國楚竹書（一）~（八）；清華大學戰國竹簡（一）；長沙五里牌四零六號墓戰國楚竹簡；長沙仰天湖二十五號墓楚竹簡；信陽長臺關楚墓竹簡；德山夕陽坡二號楚墓竹簡；隨州曾侯乙墓竹簡；荊門包山楚簡；江陵望山楚墓竹簡；江陵九店東周楚墓簡；荊門郭店楚墓竹簡；香港中文大學文物館所藏楚簡；江陵磚瓦廠Ｍ370號楚簡；黃崗曹家崗楚墓竹簡。第三節提及本研究的方法及過程，乃以歷史分析法與歸納法為主分析戰國楚簡。第四節做文獻回顧，討論最近研究之動向及論著。第二章研究戰國楚簡出土內容及其分類，第一節探究了有關戰國楚簡的出土狀況：首先考察戰國楚地出土文獻的概況，其次探討戰國楚地出土文獻的史料範圍及其定義。第二節探討戰國楚簡的內容，得知有的文獻內容與書寫時期無關，而有的文獻內容與書寫時期卻有莫大關連，因此根據戰國楚簡的內容，該文獻的時代及其特徵可被視為語法研究的一種基準。第三節為探究戰國楚簡出土內容及分類，本論文為奠定戰國楚簡語言研究的基礎，據出土時代分成其種類。第三章整理了上古漢語類型與楚語的特徵，第一節討論上古漢語的類型特徵：一、根據諸學者的漢語分期，本論文認為戰國楚簡的時代是從春秋以前西周時期至戰國時期，公元前476年至公元前221年；二、根據上古漢語的語言類型假說，探討基本的多層次結構檢測句式，如，則是「某人（物）給某人（物）做某事」的句式。根據該句中所出現的論元關係，可分為六種語言類型，其中常見的三種語言類型為：受格語言、作格語言及分裂的作格語言。本論文認為上古漢語具分裂的作格語言的特徵，即動詞動貌使用於論元結構，描述論元概念及結構關係，可解決語言類型的判別問題。檢驗上古漢語類型特徵的方法有五類：第一，人稱，即人稱的有生性或限定性異同可表現語言類型。所謂現實語言指的不只是以作格語言為基礎所組織的代詞，亦不只是以受格語言為基礎組織的代詞；第二，「時（tense）」與「體（aspect）」是動詞範疇，上古時代未出現表示時態的標誌，只利用時間副詞及時間名詞表示時態；第三，動詞組的自主性，即以意義範疇觀察論元，可推測觀察資料的語言類型；第四，其他檢測語言類型的方法；第五，受事主語句（受動句）。第二節探究楚地民族及楚語的特點，根據民族階層的語言使用狀況，確定戰國出土文獻的語言類型及傾向，並發現於上古戰國楚地文獻中，乃有通語與方言共存的現象。第四章申論代詞之定義、句法功能及其具體分類。第一節考察代詞的定義，第二節討論代詞的功能。所謂代詞是根據「替代（Pronoun）」、「指示（R-express）」、「照應（Anaphora）」之關係，分其功能及範圍，而代詞是指在談話中為免重複使用，具有替代或指示功能的詞，可替代的對象有多種詞類，如名詞、動詞、形容詞和數詞。第三節分出本論文建立的六類代詞：一、人身代詞與反身代詞；二、指示詞與情狀代詞：近指（之）、遠指（其）、情狀代詞；三、疑問代詞：依詢問方式來分類；四、全量稱代：皆、具、咸、悉、盡等；五、不定代詞：莫、或、每、各、某；六、關係代詞：者、所。第五章深研人身代詞，考察內部關係及外部關係。第一身代詞，首先推測「吾」與「余」為不同的語言系統，再來可知「我」與「女（汝）」之制約關係，則「我」不可作為「女（汝）」之主語出現，而「女（汝）」作主語時「我」只能作賓語出現。人身代詞顯示內部因素或外部因素之間的關係，可視為語言之某種層次，戰國楚簡的人身代詞之間仍存在此現象。第六章探究指示代詞，戰國楚簡的指示詞可分為近指詞、遠指詞及情狀代詞，第一節討論近指詞的功能及出現狀況，可知戰國楚簡常用的單音節賓語「之」之情形，亦常有以「之」為偏句主語。此時期「是」與「此」共存，亦有通格現象。「斯」可指示動詞或形容詞作狀語用，形成「斯＋V/A」句式，而此句式可視為戰國楚地語言的特徵，戰國楚簡中亦出現此例。第二節遠指詞最常見「其」字，句中一般作定語用，而至戰國楚簡，已有通格現象。第七章疑問代詞，討論疑問代詞的句法變遷及戰國楚簡疑問類別，尤其第三節探討疑問代詞「安」與「可（何）」，第四節「孰」與「誰」。第一節討論疑問代詞的語序演變，第二節為戰國楚簡疑問代詞的分類。第八章探討其他代詞及兼詞，本論文認為其他代詞包含三類代詞：一、「指量詞」；二、不定代詞；三、關係代詞。第一節提出「指量詞」（quantifier）的概念及其功能，歸結戰國楚簡的指量詞演變過程。第二節舉出不定代詞「或」與「莫」的功能，此類考察於戰國楚簡，得知楚簡中的特徵。第三節觀察關係代詞「所」與「者」，戰國楚簡中出現多種句式。第四節考察兼詞「諸」與「焉」，分析戰國楚簡的兼詞實例。第九章深研指示詞「是」，本論文檢驗「是」作繫詞之前演變過程。首先，根據「是」字句的使用年代，觀察時代特徵。其次，根據「是」字句的篇章形式，觀察「是」字句特徵。最後，根據「是」字句的文獻比較，觀察戰國楚地出土文獻的「是」字句特徵。第十章論述本論文的結論，綜合討論戰國楚簡語言之類型特徵及每個代詞所呈現的句法特徵。

關鍵字

古文字；上古漢語語法；代詞；戰國楚簡；作格語言

並列摘要

In recent years, linguistic research has been moving from the study of linguistic macrocosms to the study of linguistic microcosms and this trend is gaining in momentum. Since concrete examples provide proof for the reality of language, both the individual and independent elements of China's various ethnic groups can be understood via research into linguistic microcosms. Mandarin's pluralism is a characteristic that has been inherited from ancient times. However, the majority of researchers believe that languages are also influenced by other languages within their physical proximity. Historical linguistics has shown that the evolution of Chinese has not only been influenced by external factors, but by internal ones as well. Zhāng Mǐn (張敏) points out that Dryer (1992) and Thomason (2001) believe that even the basic word order of Chinese was influenced by both internal and external factors . Chu has asserted that word order is a very stable attribute and it is very difficult for it to change due to mere areal contact. However, modern researchers, by virtue of having analyzed many different languages from across the world, have concluded that word order is indeed one of the grammatical features which can be spread through areal contact. Thomason asserts that word order is second only to vocabulary in regards to how easy it is to be borrowed into other languages. For this reason, the current study takes the position that changes in word order is an important marker which can explain external factors responsible for language change. 　　 The notion that pronouns are topological markers is used in this study in an attempt to do a comparative analysis of both syntax and literature. Chinese has complex mechanisms for word derivation as well as its own origins and development. As such, it is difficult to characterize its linguistic features. Though this is the case, many scholars have published papers discussing this very topic and systematic results have already been obtained regarding syntactical analysis. In order to investigate the diversity within Chinese, the current study analyses derivational and syntactic trends within Warring States excavated texts in an attempt to characterize the syntactic features of Old Chinese and the language in Warring States excavated texts from the state of Chu (楚). To begin, section one of chapter one examines the purpose and motivation behind researching pronouns within excavated Chu texts from the Warring States period. Section two continues by discussing the scope of this research and limiting it to the following texts: • Shànghǎi Bówùguǎn cáng Zhànguó Chú Zhúshū (1) – (8) [上海博物館藏戰國楚竹書（一）~（八）; The Warring States Chu bamboo manuscripts stored in the Shanghai museum] • Qīnghuí Dàxué Zhànguó Zhújiǎn (1) [清華大學戰國竹簡（一）; The Tsinghua bamboo manuscripts] • Chángshā Wǔlǐpái sì líng liù hào mù Zhànguó Chú zhújiǎn [長沙五里牌四零六號墓戰國楚竹簡; The Chu bamboo manuscripts of the Changsha Wulipai tomb number 406] • Xìnyáng Chángtáiguān Chǔ mù zhújiǎn [信陽長臺關楚墓竹簡; Bamboo manuscript of the Chu tomb in Xinyang's Changtaiguan county] • Déshān Xīyángpō èr hào Chǔ mù zhújiǎn [德山夕陽坡二號楚墓竹簡; Bamboo manuscript of the number two Chu tomb at Deshan Xiyangpo] • Suízhōu Zēnghóuyǐ mù zhújiǎn [隨州曾侯乙墓竹簡; Bamboo manuscript from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng at Suizhou] • Jīngmén Bāoshān Chǔ jiǎn [荊門包山楚簡; The Baoshan Chu bamboo manuscript from Jingmen] • Jiānglíng Wàngshān Chǔ mù zhújiǎn [江陵望山楚墓竹簡; The Wanshan Chu bamboo manuscript from Jiangling] • Jiānglíng Jiǔdiàn Dōng Zhōu Chǔ mù jiǎn [江陵九店東周楚墓簡; The Jiudian Chu bamboo manuscript from an Eastern Zhou tomb in Jiangling] • Jīngmén Guōdiàn Chǔ mù zhújiǎn [荊門郭店楚墓竹簡; The Guodian Chu manuscript from the Jingmen tomb] • Xiānggǎng Zhōngwén Dàxué Wénwùguǎn suǒcáng Chǔ jiǎn [香港中文大學文物館所藏楚簡; the Chu manuscript collection at the cultural relic museum of the Chinese University of Hong Kong] • Jiānglíng Zhuānwǎchǎng M 370 hào Chǔ jiǎn [江陵磚瓦廠Ｍ370號楚簡; the Chu manuscript of the M370 brickworks at Jiangling] • Huánggǎng Cáojiāgǎng Chǔ mù zhújiǎn [黃崗曹家崗楚墓竹簡; The Caojiagang Chu manuscripts from the Huanggang tomb] 　　Section three discusses research methodology and process. In addition, the Chu bamboo manuscripts are analyzed via historical analysis and logical induction. Section four is a review of the relevant literature and a discussion of the recent trends and new ideas within this type of research. Chapter two explores both the content and the various types of Warring States excavated texts from the state of Chu. Section one examines the actual conditions surrounding the excavation of these texts, starting with a general survey and is followed by a discussion of the scope of these historical materials and any relevant definitions. Section two investigates textual content, and here it is discovered that the content of these texts is sometimes unrelated to the time period in which it was written, however, sometimes there is a very strong relationship. When this is the case, the characteristics of the text as well as the time period in which it was written can be used as a standard for conducting grammar research. Section three delves into the content and categorization of excavated Chu manuscripts. It is hoped that the current research will be used as a basis for researching the language of these Chu texts. The manuscripts are be categorized according to the time period in which they were written. Chapter three deals with the topology of Old Chinese and the characteristics of the Chu language. Section one discusses the properties of Old Chinese: 1. Based upon the various historical periods of the Chinese language, the current study places the language of the Chu manuscripts from 476B.C.to 221B.C. 2. According to the theoretical topology of Old Chinese, discuss its basic multi- layered structure as a way of investigating syntax. For example, take the syntax in sentences such as Mǒu rén (wù) gěi mǒu rén (wù) zuò mǒu shì “某人（物）給某人（物）做某事” A certain person (or thing) gives another person (or thing) a given matter to handle”. According to the relationships between the various arguments which appear in that sentence, they can be put into one of six topological categories. The three most common of the six topological categories are accusative languages, ergative languages, and split-ergative languages. Old Chinese has the characteristics of being a split-ergative language. Verb aspect appears in the argument structure and describes the relationship between argument concepts and their structure, which can be used to solve the problem of differentiating various topological language types. There are five ways of testing the typological characteristics of Old Chinese: 1. Forms of address. Differences in the level of animateness or qualification for a form of address can show topological type. So-called real language (現實語言) does not simply refer to pronouns that are formed on the basis of accusative languages; neither does it merely refer to pronouns that are formed on the basis of ergative languages . 2. The verb characteristics of tense and aspect. As tense markers had not yet appeared during the Old Chinese period, verb tense was expressed via adverbs and nouns of time. 3. A verb phrase's level of autonomy. By observing sentence arguments within the scope of sentence meaning, one can infer the language topology of the source material. 4. Various miscellaneous testing methods. 5. Sentences with patient as subject (passive sentences). Section two describes the characteristics of the Chu people and their language. By looking at how language use varies according to social strata, the topological language type and linguistic disposition of Warring States excavated texts can be determined. It was discovered that both standard language and dialectical language co-existed within Chu manuscripts of the Warring States period. Chapter four discusses the definition, syntactic functions and concrete classification of pronoun in detail. Section one explores the definition, while section two discusses syntactic functions. The scope and functionality of pronouns are determined according to the relationship between substitutes (替代), references (指示) and anaphora (照應). “Pronoun” refers to a word which is used in speech to avoid repetition and functions as a substitute or a reference. It can substitute for many different word types, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and numerals. Section three proposes a six category classification for pronouns: 1. Personal and reflexive pronouns. 2. Demonstrative and deictic pronouns: near proximity (之zhī) and far proximity (其 qí). 3. Interrogative pronouns. These are categorized according to the type of inquiry. 4. Inclusive substitutions: 皆 jiē、具 jù、咸 xián、悉 xī、盡 jìn, etc. 5. Indefinite pronouns: 莫 mò、或 huò、每 měi、各 gè、某 mǒu. 6. Relative pronouns: 者 zhě, 所 suǒ. Chapter five takes a closer look at personal pronouns, investigating both internal and external relationships. Regarding first-person pronouns, it is conjectured that 吾wú and 余yú are from different linguistic systems. This is followed by a discussion of the constraint relationship between我wǒ and 女{汝} rǔ. That is, 我 cannot be used as the subject of {汝} and when {汝} appears as subject, 我 can only be used as object. Personal pronouns reveal the relationships between both internal and external elements and can be viewed as a type of linguistic layer. This type of phenomena also exists within Warring States excavated Chu manuscripts. Chapter six investigates demonstrative pronouns. Demonstratives from Warring States Chu manuscripts can be categorized as near proximity, far proximity or deictic pronouns. Section one examines the functions of near proximity pronouns and their textual distribution. The distribution of the monosyllabic object 之zhī within Warring States Chu texts is shown, where it often appears as the subject of a modifying clause. During this period, 是shì and 此cǐ coexist. 斯sī can be used to indicate that a verb or adjective is being used as an adverbial modifier (狀語) in order to form a sentence of the form “斯 + V/A”. This type of sentence is a characteristic marker for the Chu language during the Warring States period. Section two explores the most common far proximity pronoun 其 qí. It is often used in sentences as a modifier (定語). Chapter seven discusses interrogative pronouns, including syntactical change and the types of interrogatives in Warring States Chu texts. Section three covers the interrogative pronouns 安ān and 可{何} hé, while 孰shú and 誰shéi are considered in section four. Section one talks about interrogative-related changes in word order and section two investigates the various types of interrogatives that appear in Warring States Chu texts. the eighth chapter explores other pronouns and contractions, including: 1. Quantifiers 2. Indefinite pronouns 3. Relative pronouns The first section discusses quantifiers and their functions, and gives a summary of the evolution of quantifiers in Warring States Chu excavated texts. The second section discusses the functions of the indefinite pronouns 或 huò and 莫mò, which can be found in Chu bamboo manuscripts and shed light on their characteristics. The third section covers the relative pronouns 所 suǒ and 者zhě, which appear in many sentence patterns in Chu manuscripts. The fourth section investigates the contractions 諸 zhū and 焉 yān and analyzes examples from Chu manuscripts. The chapter nine covers the demonstrative 是 shì and examines its evolution before it became copular. First, the usage of 是 shì is investigated throughout various time periods. Next, characteristics of sentences containing 是 shì are explained according to how it is used. Finally, a comparison is made of sentences containing 是 shì in excavated Chu manuscripts in order to determine their properties. The chapter ten — the conclusion — discusses the topological properties of the language of the Chu bamboo manuscripts as well as the syntactical characteristics of each pronoun.