先秦諸子論「鬼神」

自從人類出現、並產生文化以來，應該即有鬼神信仰。在東亞大地上的「中國」，傳世文獻或考古資料所反映的古代王朝夏、商、周，皆有與鬼神相關的信仰與制度。而到了春秋戰國的所謂「先秦」時期，在變動的時代中，諸子看待鬼神的方式，也開始產生變化，並出現了各種紛雜的觀念。本論文旨在探討先秦諸子的鬼神觀念、及其對鬼神的相關論述。從春秋晚期以迄戰國時期，在人文精神逐漸興起、以及世局劇烈變動的狀況下，究竟應該如何對待鬼神，遂開始成為諸子之間，一個無法迴避的重要議題。首先，在鬼神存在的前提下，各派諸子對於如何服事鬼神，提出了不同的對應之道。誠然，鬼神信仰做為長期存在的事實，諸子對於鬼神的討論，往往立足於一些共同的基礎；只不過，由於鬼神委實難以捉摸，於是，諸子對於鬼神的特性，遂又各自發揮，而產生各種幽渺的想像。只不過，在時代的衝擊下，隨著思想的相激相盪，諸子中有一部分人，開始對鬼神的存在與否，抱持懷疑論或不可知論；甚至有人更進一步，逐漸從此種知識上的理性傾向，發展到不相信鬼神的無鬼神論。而為了回應此種揚棄鬼神的趨勢，在諸子之中，亦有部分人將世間問題的解決，寄望於鬼神；此種努力，即反映在墨家的「明鬼」之說上。然而，在他們強調鬼神確實存在、並能影響人世的同時，也提出具有超越性的「尚同」、「天志」等觀念，而成為墨家思想的重要特徵。最後，作者將先秦諸子對鬼神的諸多觀念，置於中國文化的歷史發展脈絡裡來加以觀察，並且，透過與近代西方宗教與科學世界觀的對照，省思此種鬼神觀或宗教信仰，對當代現實社會文化的影響及其所具有的重大歷史意義。

關鍵字

先秦思想；鬼神；懷疑論；不可知論；無鬼神論；人文精神

並列摘要

In Classical China, the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods predate China's unification under the Qin dynasty. This was a time of intellectual ferment in which philosophers of different states considered the crisis of their time and sought ideas to avert the collapse of the world as they knew it. Defining the supernatural character of ”ghosts and gods” (guishen 鬼神), and how they influence human beings, constituted one important element of their thought.This article examines pre-Qin philosophical views on ”guishen”, as well as how this conceived category of beings was differentiated from other beings, and therefore connected to the maintenance of world order. Such debates were inextricable linked to philosophical efforts to identify the supernatural and its influence. Some thinkers judged that humans needed to make cautious offerings to ghosts and gods; others believed that humans ought to avoid disturbing ghosts and gods altogether. They agreed that the nature of ghosts and gods was universal, but again disagreed on the precise relationship between man and ”guishen.” One view suggested that humans were not necessarily dependant on ghosts and gods, and even that these beings did not exist. Thus, skepticism, and even atheism, emerged. An opposing view asserted that ghosts and gods were useful for maintaining the order of the human world. Consequently, it was important to ensure harmony between men and ”guishen” in accordance with the universal rules of the cosmos.Finally this essay considers the views of the pre-Qin philosophers in the context of the historical development of China's culture. It also advances a comparison with the religious and scientific world view of the modern West. This provides insight into the influence that such views of ghosts and gods and religious faith had on contemporary society, as well as its profound historical significance.