以《阿含經》略論道德的根源－並略評釋昭慧《佛教後設倫理學》

A Brief Discussion on the Root of Morality Based on The Agama Sutras-And Brief Comment on Shi Zhaohui's Buddhist Metaethics

陳介源(Chien-Yuan Chen) ； 蔡禮政(Li-Chen Tsai)

《正覺學報（繁體版）》 2期 (2008/12) Pp. 43-107

https://doi.org/10.29668/JTE.200812.0002

摘要

西方哲學從古希臘便開始嘗試對善、正義等道德用語進行定義，並且努力發掘人類爲何會有道德觀念，道德的根源到底是什麼？此種努力一直到近代採用語言分析的分析哲學興起後，倫理學也重新探討相關命題，並將所有的哲學問題歸納爲語言問題，致使後設倫理學跟著興起而成爲研究的重點。可是經過將近一世紀的研究，對於道德的根源命題，仍然無法獲得突破性的成果。
本文嘗試以佛教《阿含經》的觀點，對於上述西方哲學二千餘年來的重要命題進行研究。本文發現佛教是以堅固穩定的價值體系作爲探討的基礎，而此價值體系就是符合法界事實的十法界。十法界中六凡業道是所有有情必須面對的業道抉擇，四聖法道則是所有有情厭惡業道輪迴後，所必須面對的法道抉擇。十法界的價值體系即是以實踐道德的能力所成立，而一切道德價值的根源即是可以實證的入胎識－如來藏。
由於有十法界的客觀存在，使得有情在無量的輪迴生死後，想要獲得勝於此世的未來世果報，或想要獲得解脫輪迴的自由，因此產生道德觀念以作爲業道與法道的抉擇，以此作爲善惡的分野，並且以此作爲相對善與絕對善的定義。佛教即是以實證法界根源如來藏所得的實相智慧，引發自由意志的抉擇智慧而邁向成佛之道。
釋昭慧認爲佛教是以緣起法中的我愛作爲道德的根源，並由我愛的基礎產生自通之法作爲道德判斷的基礎。本文研究發現《阿含經》主張「我愛是不道德的根源，是無量無數惡的淵藪」，不學佛法而自通之法，只是通於世間善的人天法，只是初級道德的動力而非根源，只能及於未來世的好果報而不能及於解脫生死輪迴。因此，緣起法不是所有道德的根源，住持有情身心的如來藏才是所有道德的根源。
康德主張理性宗教的三個道德公設並不正確，其中自由意志的選擇與上帝的存在，是彼此矛盾的公設。本文認爲真正的理性宗教應具有三個實證內涵：1、自由意志的存在，2、如來藏永恆存在，3、實相智慧。此外，對於存有命題，語言研究的方法，並不是正確有效的方法；語言研究所獲得的任何證據皆不是第一手證據，只有現量實證所獲得的智慧，才是真正的第一手證據，也是終極證據。
本文認爲所有有情隱藏於內心深處，對於自由、民主、人權等普世價值的渴望，正是對於佛教自由意志的抉擇智慧的渴求。由於對普世價值的渴求，必然使得一切有情在獲得具有實踐道德能力的人身時，在諸佛菩薩無慢的慈悲教導下，終將實證實相智慧而逐步邁向成佛之道，唯除決定性的不迴心二乘人。

關鍵字

價值論 ； 義務論 ； 自通之法 ； 效益主義 ； 直覺論 ； 情緒論 ； 絕對自由 ； 普世價值 ； 道德哲學 ； 倫理學 ； 後設倫理學

並列摘要

Since ancient Greece, Western philosophers have tried to define the moral terms such as good, justice, etc. and endeavored to explore why human beings have the concept of morality and what is the root of morality. With such efforts until recent development of analytic philosophy, which uses the skill of linguistic analysis, ethics also re-explores the related propositions and ascribes all philosophic questions to the linguistic one so as to start the development of metaethics and make it become the focus of research. But after the research for nearly a century, not any breakthrough result for the proposition about the root of morality has been achieved yet.
From the viewpoint of Buddhist Agama Sutras, this article tries to study the aforementioned important propositions, which have been discussed for more than two thousand years in Western philosophy. We found that a firm and stable value system is used in Buddhism as the base of exploration; this system is the ten dharma-realms (ten dharmadhatus), which conform to the fact of dharma-realm. The six ordinary karma paths of the ten dharma-realms are the choice of karma paths faced by all sentient beings; the four noble dharma paths are the choice of dharma paths faced by those who dislike the transmigration (samsara) of karma paths. The value system of ten dharma-realms is built from the capability to practice morality, and the root of all moral values is precisely the embryo-entering consciousness, Tathagatagarbha, which can be actually realized.
Due to the objective existence of the ten dharma-realms, sentient beings, after the countless lives and deaths and with the hope of having better future rebirths or liberating themselves from transmigration, bring forth the moral concept as the choice of either karma paths or dharma paths. They use the moral concept as the boundary between good and evil, and as the definition of relative good and absolute good. Buddhist learners use the wisdom of true reality obtained from realizing the root of dharma-realm, Tathagatagarbha, to bring forth the wisdom of free will to choose and advance toward Buddhahood.
Shi Zhaohui thinks self-affection in dependent-arising dharma of Buddhism is used as the root of morality to generate the method of self-mastery as the base of moral judgment. This article finds that ”self-affection is not the root of morality, but is the cause of countless evils instead” in The Agama Sutras. Learning the method of self-mastery rather than the Buddha dharma is only to master the human or heavenly methods of worldly good; it only is the motivation of primary morality but not the root, and can only enable one to obtain good reward in future lives rather than to liberate oneself from transmigration. Therefore, the dependent-arising dharma is not the root of morality, but the Tathagatagarbha that dwells in and sustains each sentient being's body and mind is the root of morality instead.
The three moral postulates of rational religions claimed by Kant are not correct. Among them, the postulates about the choice by free will and the existence of God contradict each other. This article thinks the real rational religions should have three contents of realization: 1. the existence of free will, 2. the permanent existence of Tathagatagarbha, and 3. the wisdom of true reality. In addition, the method of linguistic research is not a correct and efficient one for the proposition of being; all evidence obtained by linguistic research is not first-hand and only the wisdom obtained by personal direct realization is the real first-hand and ultimate one.
This article thinks the aspiration that hides deep inside all sentient beings' hearts for the universal value of freedom, democracy, human right, etc. is exactly the aspiration for the wisdom of free will to choose in Buddhism. Due to the aspiration for universal value, all sentient beings, when they obtain a human body with the capability to practice morality, will personally realize the wisdom of true reality and advance, step by step, toward Buddhahood under the non-arrogant and compassionate teaching of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. But those who have decided to stay in Hinayana dharma are excluded.

並列關鍵字

theory of value ； theory of obligation ； method of self-mastery ； principle of efficiency ； theory of intuition ； theory of emotion ； absolute freedom ； universal value ； moral philosophy ； ethics ； metaethics