釋德清（憨山老人）融攝儒道兩家思想以論佛性

In the Ming dynasty most Buddhists belonged to both T'ien-t'ai and Hua-yen Sects in theory but to both Ch'an (Zen) and Pure-land (Lotus) Schools in practice. Chu-hung (1535-1615), Ta-kuan or Chen-k'o (1544-1604) and Te-ch'ing (Han-shan, 1546-1623) were already ranked top-trio by their contemporaries. Later Chih-hsü (1599-1655) was added to form the supreme quadripartite of Ming monks. Since the intellectual climate of late Ming favoured simplicity and easiness, the Ch'an Sect and the Neo-Confucian School of Wang Yang-ming (1472-1529) exerted strong mutual influence. They did not share Hsüan-tsang's and K'uei-chi's lifelong profound interest in the complicated psychoanalysis of the Yogācāra (Mere-Consciousness) School. Despite adopting the concept of the eighth or storehouse consciousness as the unique origin of ail phenomena, Te-ch'ing ignored Paramārtha's introduction of the ninth consciousness (amalavijñana). Te-ch'ing severely reproached those who failed to recognize their own original feature fixed or determinate before their birth, i.e. the inherent, transcendental Buddha-nature, which is supramundane absolute Good beyond the mundane dichotomy between relative good and evil. On account of māyā (illusion) or avidyā (ignorance) they chased and grasped the ＂dust＂ or shadow of their authentic, substantial mind (self) instead of this mind itself. To cope with morbid attachment to empirical, phenomenal ego and egocentricity, Te-ch'ing elaborated on the doctrine of anātman or nairātyma (non-ego) that denies an independent, self-contained soul, through suggestive analogies among Buddhism and Pre-Ch'in Taoism of Lao-Chuang and ancient Confucianism with the classics of Confucian Analects, The Works of Mencius, The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, and especially the Spring and Autumn Annals and its commentary Tso-chuan. Han-shan condemned the folk religion of later Taoism, except the achievement of Lü Tung-pin, the Buddho-Taoist who wrote essays on fidelity, filial piety, Ch'an, the Diamond Sūtra, and above all, the identical source of Confucianism and Taoism. It is right to say that Han-shan syncretized the Three Teachings, but misleading to say that he combined the Three Religions. In his value-hierachy, Lao Tzu tops the division or realm of Celestial Beings (Devas or Gods) after his emancipation (moksa) from passion and desire, while Confucius tops the devision of Human Beings because of modelling himself after Bodhisattva in bringing salvation to mundane beings. These two Chinese sages are in myth believed to be two manifestations (nirmānakāya) of Sākyamuni as original Buddha (dharmakāya). Having understood Chuang Tzu's criticizing Confucianism as objecting to excessive adherence to external feats and words. Te-ch'ing interpreted Buddha's blaming Hinayāna as denouncing adherence to the deeds and words of Hinayāna, and explained Buddha's pity on Bodhisattva to be the condemnation of overzealous altruism, despite the superiority of altruism over the selfishness of Hinayāna. According to the Mahāparinirvāna Sutra, Buddha-nature is omnipresent like space, and particularly, all sentient beings have this divine essence. Chi-tsang of the Three-Treatise School and the Ox-Head School of Ch'an said that plants have Buddha-nature. In the T'ien-t'ai Sect, Chan-jan advocated that even insentient beings are endowed by Buddha-mind with Buddha-nature. Accepting these, Te-ch'ing stressed that the ubiquity of Buddha-nature or Dharmakāya is due to the evolution and transformation of our transcendental mind. Further, he quoted the myth that the insentient dharma-drum and the gods of ultimate pure light (ābhāsvara) can respectively teach morality and converse by light instead of sound. Hence his belief that insentient beings can preach like humans. During his long exile of 28 years in the far south of China, he urged disciples to straighten their minds by eliminating all crooked forms, to cultivate tenderness and patience towards both bitter adversity and lofty Dharma (principles), and let Buddha-nature shine forth spontaneously and instantaneously. His admiration for Hui-neng drove him to die at Ts'ao-hsi, the sacred spot of Ch'an. However, he could not excel Hui-neng at least in one point: the latter never distorted traditional Chinese philosophies to suit Buddhism, whereas Te-ch'ing committed fallacies, e.g. misinterpreting ＂lü＂ (careful thinking or deliberation) of The Great Learning to be thoughtlessness and worrilessness.

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