論植物品種之智慧財產權保護及其對農產業之影響

Intellectual Property Protection of Plant Variety & its Influence on Agricultural Enterprises

郭菁菁(Ching-Ching Kuo)

指導教授 ： 郭華仁

共同指導教授 ： 謝銘洋(Ming-Yan Shieh)

國立臺灣大學/生物資源暨農學院/農藝學研究所/博士(2015年)

https://doi.org/10.6342/NTU.2015.00108

摘要

世界各國農作物產量的巨幅度提升，大都依賴作物品種的改良。台灣位於北回歸線上 ，地跨熱帶及亞熱帶不同的氣候，因此植物資源豐富；就單位面積上的物種歧異度而言，在世界上可謂名列前茅。過去不但充分供應國內所需糧食，穩定工資與物價，亦有大量農產品外銷賺取外匯，以進口工業設施與原料，對於工業與總體經濟的發展貢獻至巨。台灣農業環境條件複雜，仍能夠在育種及提升農作物生產及品質的能力上，創造出台灣經驗的農業奇蹟；皆因台灣植物繁殖與育種技術發達，且農業研發人才興盛，從中游的亞蔬中心、農改場、農試所，至下游田間的農民，皆具有世界第一流的農作技術。為使我國植物品種研發跟上國際，近年政府研擬由經濟部提出專利法修正草案，開放動植物專利，強化研發成果之保護機制；然而是否應開放植物專利，已造成極大爭議。
本研究先從知識經濟為出發點，探討專利權的本質；由於資本主義的全球化，造成「經濟活動的國際化」；由專利權的歷史沿革來看，專利制度起源於重商主義的社會，在競爭對抗的過程發展。所以專利制度與社會的經濟環境、政治制度有密切的關係。然而在很多創意工業，專利往往成為打壓他人的創新的工具。近代農業之所以能滿足爆增的人口，最重要的因素在於綠色革命催生「高產品種」。由於綠色革命的農業模式成本昂貴，產能卻逐漸走下坡；已開發國家呼籲發起「第二次綠色革命」--也就是「基因革命」，擴大生物科技的應用，以因應氣候異常及人口成長。近世紀來植物的科學育種加速了作物種原的侵蝕；人類過去賴以維生的糧食種類，在過去一百年間，已經消失了一半以上。然而基改作物經過多年推廣得知：基因改造作物既無助於產量的提升，亦無助於抵抗病蟲害。不但破壞生態環境，促使植物品種單一化，導向規模經濟益趨擴大；且糧食缺乏的區域無法負擔基改種子的高額授權費用，反而多半以有機農耕方式維持生活溫飽。
為了鼓勵育種家努力推出新品種 ，提昇農業發展，確保其農業競爭力，各國都訂有法律來保障育種家的智慧財產權。由於種子之於傳統農作物生產，不僅是個起點 ，也是技術移轉的重要媒介；對於環境而言，更是生物多樣性的關鍵；國際上最常見的植物品種保護方式為「植物育種者權」(Plant Breeders Right, PBR)。國際植物品種權保護的國際組織係植物新品種保護國際聯盟(International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, UPOV)。我國已於2002年1月1日正式加入世界貿易組織 (The World Trade Organization，簡稱WTO)成為其會員後，須遵守相關規範及履行入會談判承諾，以執行包括與貿易有關之智慧財產權協定(Agreement on Trade Related Aspects on Intellectual Property Rights，簡稱TRIPs )在內的各種規範。為順應此世界潮流，我國早於1988年即參酌UPOV公約1978 年版本，制定及實施「植物種苗法」品種權利登記制度，後為因應國際植物品種保護趨勢及彌補法規之不足，參酌UPOV 1991年公約及歐美日等相關法規，於2005 年6 月30 日修訂為「植物品種及種苗法」。歐美等科技強國近年來基因工程（genetic engineering）技術發展，其植物新品種之培育已跳脫傳統的育種方式；因此育種家、種苗或生化公司轉而尋求獨占性與排他性更強的專利權保護。因為只要經過育種程序，就可以將從原來屬於「人類共同資產」的作物材料，創造出一個並非新的但是屬於公司的私有財。即使如此，多數國家於專利法中大多明列植物品種不能取得專利，其主要原因為傳統的植物選拔過程為一已知技術，並非新的發明。而發明的創新性為取得專利保護要件之一。專利法對植物的過度保護，不但會在大型農企業間引發不公平競爭的官司，更會讓全球種子國際貿易七成掌握在大財團手上，扼殺許多小公司及農民的研發空間。
本研究發現：植物實用專利係為滿足企業需求所發展出來的制度，並非為一般育種家所設立的。現今跨國種子公司巨頭不再是普通的商業性公司，大到像孟山都這樣的公司，不僅可以操控全球市場體系，而且通過這種全球市場體系形成了一種「全球層級的新權力形態」。孟山都的基因戰略，也就是美國國家戰略的一部分：他們用《WTO農業協定》和實施的「和貿易有關的智慧財產權法」（TRIPS），強行打開了國家之間的所有壁壘；加上種子專利這個武器，不但使許多農產富饒的國家失去糧食自給能力，經濟決定權也落入跨國企業之手。孟山都拿著基因專利和種子專利做擋箭牌，不允許農民留種及獨立的研究；這些規範限制了農民的習慣及作物的遺傳資源。
智慧財產原本設計的目的，是回饋並引起對知識及創造力的重視，並非如同全球化平台上所討論的GATT、TRIPS、或是近年來我國擬加入的TPP，都顯示出智慧財產權是為了單一化的知識而存在的法規；藉此取代其他獲得知識的途徑、以及其他知識共享的模式。植物實用專利保護的擴張，與美國法院有意拓展生物專利的使用，已造成過去十多年來全球獨立運作種子公司的蕭條。由於已開發國家對於生物科技專利核准有漸趨浮濫的趨勢；造成許多專利技術閒置的「反公用悲劇」。為了解決這種專利技術利用不足的現象，國際間正在推行「開放生物技術」的觀念。許多主張基因資訊應公開、保留於公有領域（public domain）的論者，更進一步提出生物資訊應仿效軟體程式的自由、開放模式，並以「開放基因碼」（open source genomics）的方式保持基因資訊的公開取得與自由流動；免除潛在壟斷者假智慧財產權保護之名，行獨占市場之實的可能性。其法律的基礎，都在於不放棄既有智慧財產權架構的保護，僅放棄部分作者的獨占權利，但以契約的方式擴張、確保後續使用者的開放式授權。
植物專利保護的是基改作物；單一化的基改作物是生態多樣性的殺手。在小農精耕系統下，若考慮生物多樣性，其系統的產出高於單一作物。「綠色革命」所使用的化肥農藥嚴重破壞環境，而友善環境的「綠化農業Greening agriculture」則不但可以增加小農的利潤，也能提供生態多樣性而有助於克服氣候變遷。研究發現：我國農業發展利基為「小農制」；農業典範轉型就是由綠色革命(Green revolution)與基因革命(Gene revolution)，轉換到草根革命(Grass -roots revolution)。草根革命的範疇乃是提倡小農、有機/自然/生態農業的生產體系。國內並無如孟山都之大型跨國農企業，許多先驅型的發明早被外國廠商取得專利，因此本研究的結論為：以專利保護農業研發成果不利我國植物品種的創新。

關鍵字

植物品種 ； 智慧財產權 ； 農產業

並列摘要

The tremendous progress in agricultural productivity in various parts of the world is largely based on improved varieties. Taiwan is located at the Tropic of Cancer and subtropical zone, and has extremely rich resources of plants, ranking ahead by species abundance in the world. Our agriculture has fully supplied our commissariat, stabilized wage and commodity prices, and still has primary products selling abroad for earning foreign exchange, in order to import industrial facilities and raw material. It has great contribution to industry and over all economics. Agricultural Environment conditions of Taiwan are complex, can still create agricultural miracle of Taiwan experiences on seeding, improving yield and quality; because the Taiwan plant propagation and breeding techniques are well developed, and agricultural research and development personnel are prospered. From the middle of the AVRDC, Agricultural research and extension Station, Agricultural experiment station, to farmers on the films, All with world-class farming technology. In order to keep up with international R&D of plant varieties, elaboration proposed by the government in recent years, the Ministry of Economy draft amendments to the Patent Law, to open Patent flora and fauna, Strengthening protection mechanisms of R & D results. However, whether it should be open has caused considerable controversy.
In this research, it started with “knowledge economy” to explore the nature of the patent. As the capitals become globalization, cause of “economic activities internationally." History by the patent, patent system originated in the social history of mercantilism, and developed In the process of rivalry. So the patent system is closely related with the social economic environment and political system. However, in many creative industries, the patents often become tools to suppress others’ innovation. Modern agriculture has been able to meet the exploded population’ needed, the most important factor is that green revolution gave birth to "high yielding varieties". Since the agricultural model of green revolution costs expensive, Production has gradually decline. Developed countries called for a "second green revolution"-- Gene Revolution, Expanded the application of biotechnology, in order to response to unusual weather and population growth. Nearly a century, scientific plant breeding has accelerated the erosion of the original crop species. Those food species for mankind to substance were pass off more than half in the past 100 years. However, after years of promotion of GM crops that they are neither conducive to enhance the yield, nor resistance to pests and diseases. GM crops not only damage the ecological environment, but induct plant species to be simplification, and oriented economy scales to be widening. The area lack of food can’t afford the high licensing fees of GM seeds, mostly make a living by organic farming.
In order to encourage breeders strive to introduce new varieties, improve agricultural development to ensure the competitiveness of agriculture, has laws to protect intellectual property rights of breeders. As to traditional crop production, Seed is not only a beginning, but an important media of technology transformation, and also key to Biodiversity. The most common way of plant variety protection is "plant breeders' rights", and the international plant new variety protection organization is ‘International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, UPOV’. The ROC officially participated in the World Trade Organization on Jan. first, 2002. After becoming its members, ROC shall comply with the relevant regulations and fulfill commitments for membership negotiations commitment, to perform variety of specifications including the Agreement on Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). ROC conformed to this global trend and developed and implemented of "Plant Seed Act" variety rights registration system on 1988, according to the regulation of International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, UPOV(1978 TEXT). After that, in response to the trend of international protection of plant varieties and compensate for the lack of regulation of plant varieties, ROC amended "Plant Seed Act" to” The Plant Variety and Plant Seed Act” on Jun 30, 2005; according to UPOV 1991 Convention and other relevant laws and regulations of Europe and other developed countries. In recent years, technology powerhouse has developed genetic engineering technology, new plant varieties breeding tripping from traditional methods. Breeders, seed /biochemical companies turn to more exclusive patent rights. Because just after breeding program, they can transfer the original crop material of "mankind's common assets" to private properties not new but belong to the company.
Even though, most countries clearly listed in their patent laws that plant varieties can’t be patented, the main reason is that traditional plant variety selecting process is a known technology, not a new invention which is a key element to obtain patent protection. Patent law’s over protected on plants, not only induced unfair competition lawsuits between large agricultural enterprises, but also make 70% global seed international trade controlled by big corporations, and to seize the developing space of many small companies and farmers.
In this research we found that Plant utility patent system is developed to meet business needs, not to be established for general breeders. Now those multinational seed giants are no longer ordinary commercial companies. As large as Monsanto is, not only can manipulate the global market system, but form a worldwide new power patterns though the global market system. Monsanto's gene strategy is part of the U.S.A National Strategy. They forced opening all the barriers between countries using
WTO Agreement on Agriculture and implementing TRIPS, coupled with weapon of seed patent, not only made many agro-rich countries lost food self-sufficiency, but their economic decisions were lost within the hands of multinational corporations.
Monsanto hold t gene patents and seed patent as shield, not allowed farmers reserved seeds and independent research, these specifications limit the farmers' habits and genetic resources of crops. The original design purpose of intellectual property, is to give back and pay attention to knowledge and creativity; not just like GATT, TRIPS, or TPP our country draw up to join in recent years discussed on the globalization platform, were shown that intellectual property rights are existed regulations for single knowledge; in order to replace other ways of acquiring knowledge, as well as other knowledge-sharing modes. The expansion of plant utility patent protection, and usage of biological patents by the US court, has resulted in global independent seed company depression over the past decade. Since the developed countries approved biotech patents have gradually floating abuse trends, caused many patented technologies idle as ‘the tragedy of the anticommons’. In order to solve the problem of patented technology uses shortage, "open biotechnology" concept is pursuing between the international communities. Many advocates that genetic information should be public, remain in the public domain, further proposed that bioinformatics should follow the examples of free, open mode of software programs; and use the way of ‘open source genomics’ to keep gene information public and the flow freely. Let the potential monopolist had no chance using the excuse of protection of intellectual property to monopolize the market. The legal basis is that do not give up all existing intellectual property protection framework, just give up only part of the author's exclusive right; but use the contract for expansion in a manner to ensure that subsequent users’ open authorization.
Plant patents protect GM crops; simplification of GM crops is the killer of biodiversity. Under smallholders’ intensive farming system, its output are higher than the single-crop system if consider of biodiversity. Fertilizer and pesticides used within ‘green revolution’ are seriously damage the environment. And ‘Greening agriculture’ of friendly environment can not only increase profits of smallholders, but provide biodiversity and help to overcome climate changing. In this research found that ROC agricultural development niche is ‘Smallholder System’ Agriculture paradigm transition is transform from Green Revolution and Gene Revolution to Grassroots revolution. The category of Grassroots revolution is to promote small-scale, organic / natural / ecological agricultural production system. There’s no multinational agribusiness as large as Monsanto in Taiwan, and many pioneer type of invention has long been patented by foreign firms. It is the conclusion that patent protection of agricultural research results is unfavorable to plant species’ innovation.

並列關鍵字

Plant Variety ； Intellectual Property Protection ； Agricultural Enterprises

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