西漢官吏的選任與遷轉

漢代官吏可從最底層的縣小吏升遷至朝廷最高的官職丞相，此現象幾乎不見於其他朝代。本文分析西漢官吏的遷轉路徑及升遷方式，解釋他們如何向上流動，時代以西漢中後期為主。本文大致按照官職的秩級（祿秩等級）將西漢政府的官職分成八個部分，分論各層級官職的選任與遷轉，藉此勾勒官吏的升遷路徑。第一部分為縣屬吏及郡屬吏，最高秩百石。第二部分為分布於二百石至千石的令、長、丞、尉類官職，以地方的縣長吏、郡國佐官為主，也牽涉到一部分中央的中都官令、長、丞、尉。第三部分為比三百石至比六百石的郎吏、謁者，以及秩百石至六百石的公府掾屬。第四部分為地位與職掌性質特殊的官職，其選任及遷轉幾乎不與縣長吏互通，依職能可分為論議官、祕書官、監察官、宿衛官四種，秩級分布於比六百石至二千石。第五部分為中朝加官，獲加官的官吏可入宮中隨侍皇帝，或入宮中與聞政事。第六部分為地方的二千石官，包括郡的太守、都尉，王國的相、太傅、內史、中尉。二千石層級的官吏享有不少特權，仕至二千石即屬高官。第七部分為中二千石官職，又稱九卿，以及高於九卿的「上卿」中朝將軍。第八部分包括外朝的最高官職御史大夫、丞相，與中朝的最高官職大司馬，並涉及西漢晚期將三者整合的三公官改制。漢代多數官吏透過累積「功勞」（以出勤日數為基礎）、排比功勞多寡升遷，即以「功次」升遷。郡、縣屬吏可憑功次經過秩佐史、斗食、百石的官職，逐級升遷至二百石的縣長吏；也可經由察舉制度、捕斬盜賊尤異等升遷方式，一舉升遷至提升數階秩級的官位。縣屬吏不必經由郡屬吏也能升遷至縣長吏，然因太守、國相握有察舉權，縣屬吏若能除補郡吏，透過察舉跳級升遷的機會便大為增加。由於郡屬吏的員額編制遠少於縣屬吏，縣屬吏需透過八體課、得微難獄、郡守辟除、舉廉吏等特定管道，方能除補郡吏。在二百石至千石的縣長吏、郡國佐官階段，官吏依然可憑功次逐級晉升，或以察舉制度跳級晉升。比起歲舉的科目，不定期舉行的制舉科目能讓官吏除補秩級更高的官職；官秩愈低的官吏，透過察舉制度提升的秩級階數愈多。由於察舉制度多除授三百石至六百石的縣長吏、郡國佐官，功次升遷者在此區間所分配到的職缺遭到壓縮，容易陷入升遷遲滯。因此，透過各種方式跳級除補六百石以上的官職，避開升遷遲滯的區間，是能否成功升至二千石的關鍵。郡、縣屬吏除了透過功次升遷與察舉制度遷為縣長吏，也可透過舉孝廉除補郎吏，或被公府辟除為掾屬。郎吏、公府掾屬一般的升遷路徑仍是出補縣長吏，但存在一舉遷至六百石以上縣令的管道；也可經由長官舉薦，遷補第四部分所論的特殊官職。這些特殊官職有機會經過一、二次遷轉即至二千石官。特殊官職除了監察官，皆在宮中任職，與皇帝關係較親近。他們的選任方式特殊，升遷前景也較佳。察舉制度只有舉賢良方正對策高第有機會除授論議官。論議官多透過公府舉薦掾屬、徵召、考試、大臣舉薦、皇帝拔擢來選任，祕書官則來自公府舉薦掾屬、皇帝拔擢、從論議官中選補。監察官的六百石刺史多選用具備高於六百石任官資歷的官員擔任，比二千石的丞相司直、司隸校尉則常從刺史、論議官、祕書官中選具有不畏強禦人格特質的官吏擔任。宿衛官則多以外戚、佞幸、世家子弟、大臣子弟擔任，其選任頗重視先天血緣及與皇帝的私人關係。一些特殊官職不必經過察舉即可跳級補官，例如論議官的比六百石博士、比八百石諫大夫，有機會出補比二千石郡都尉、二千石的太守或王國官。特殊官職不但有機會經過較少的遷轉次數達到二千石，還可能被選為中央的二千石官，或直接遷九卿。一些西漢官吏從未出補縣長吏、郡國守相，即一路沿著中央的特殊官職升遷至公卿。官吏循著郡、縣長吏或宮中的特殊官職兩種路徑升遷，皆可至地方的二千石官。比二千石的郡都尉、二千石的王國內史在遷轉序列中稍次於太守、國相。治民的太守、國相、內史常選通政事的官吏擔任，不治民的王國太傅、中尉則多選未必通政事的儒生擔任。河南太守以及人口密集、經濟發達的關東地區大郡太守，最有機會遷為九卿。王國的二千石官常因督導諸侯王獲罪，因此國相遷為九卿的機會遠不如太守。九卿的員額遠少於地方二千石，只有少數郡守國相能遷為九卿。九卿內部可區分為四個層級，廷尉以下的六卿與三輔長官構成下面兩個層級，常選郡國守相擔任；光祿勳、衛尉、太僕三卿常以其餘九卿擔任，或選宮內比二千石的特殊官職升任；最高階的太常只選列侯擔任。地位高於九卿的御史大夫往往是丞相的候補，常選九卿升任。官吏可經郡守國相、九卿被選為御史大夫，進而升丞相；也可經宮中的特殊官職帶中朝加官，遷為九卿，經御史大夫至丞相。前者的升遷路徑可稱為「地方大吏型」，後者可稱為「宮內官型」。能升遷至御史大夫、丞相的宮內官型官吏，往往具備中朝加官的資歷，若缺乏此種資歷，則大多只能止步於九卿。在西漢武帝以後，外戚、寵臣另有一條遷轉路徑可至中朝將軍、冠大司馬之號的輔政將軍，與一般官吏遷轉至御史大夫、丞相的路徑有異。這條路徑可稱為「近侍型」，即帶著中朝加官「侍中」，以比二千石的宿衛官為本官，或遷為二千石的水衡都尉，或遷為九卿的光祿勳、太僕、衛尉，或遷中朝將軍，也可能直接被皇帝選為冠號大司馬的輔政將軍。外戚、佞幸憑藉與皇帝的私人關係，也能循著一條遷轉路徑升遷至政府最高的官職，是其他朝代不多見的現象。原本中朝最高階的將軍、大司馬，並不和外朝最高階的御史大夫、丞相互相遷轉。西漢晚期的三公官改制將御史大夫改為大司空、丞相改為大司徒，與中朝的大司馬並列為地位等齊的三公。透過兩度改制，九卿、中朝將軍、三公被整合成一條遷轉路徑，使一般官吏也能擔任中朝將軍、大司馬，近侍型官吏亦可遷至大司空、大司徒。

關鍵字

西漢；官吏；遷轉；察舉制度；宮內官

並列摘要

During the rule of Han emperors, it was possible for a minor, county-level official to be promoted to the highest offices in the government, like the Imperial Chancellor (丞相) – a phenomenon rarely seen in other periods. Focusing primarily on the middle, and late period of the Western Han dynasty, this thesis examines several component parts of Western Han administration, discusses recruitment, and advancement processes at each level, in order to illustrate possible career paths, and upward mobility available to officials. Accumulation of “merit” (功勞), based mainly on time spent holding office, and ranking personnel according to it, were the basis of promotion for many officials of Han administration. Minor county, and commandery officials, holding ranks below those entitled to 100 shi (石) of income, could be gradually promoted to county magistrates at the rank of 200 shi, but avenues for faster advancement were also available, like the chaju (察舉) system of recommendations, or exceptional contributions, like fighting crime. It was not necessary for county officials to go through commandery-level positions on their way to county magistrates, but doing so could increase their chances of advancement through multiple levels at once, through chaju recommendations from Governors (太守), and Royal Chancellors (國相). Since commanderies employed far fewer minor officials than counties, those coming from a county had to rely on channels other than promotion through merit for commandery appointments. Magistrates holding ranks of 200 to 1000 shi could be gradually promoted via merit, or skip ranks through the chaju system. Since many officials elevated through recommendations were appointed to ranks between 300, and 600 shi and given posts in counties, and commanderies, those following the merit path often faced the problem of limited openings, which diminished their chances of advancement. Therefore, getting through this range of limited opportunities was the key factor in determining one’s chances for future advancement to the rank of 2000 shi. Minor officials in counties, and commanderies could also be elevated to gentlemen (郎吏) for displaying exceptional filial piety, or appointed as assistants to Three Excellencies (公府掾屬). The usual advancement path for gentlemen, and assisting staff to Three Excellencies led through positions of county magistrates, but other means were also available for elevation to “special positions,” like recommendations from high officials, and selection by the emperor. Appointment to these special posts was difficult to obtain through merit, or the chaju system, and those who obtained them had good prospects for further promotion. Among them, counsellors, and secretaries tended to obtain posts through recommendations of high officials, and emperor’s selection; among supervising staff, Regional Inspectors (刺史) with the rank of 600 shi were selected from officials who had held positions with the rank of 600 shi or higher, while officials responsible for the imperial guard relied primarily on their personal relationships with the emperor. Those holding special positions could obtain the rank of 2000 shi after as few as one, or two promotions, or even be promoted directly to one of the Nine Ministers (九卿). Promotion to ranks of 2000 shi, considered high in the bureaucracy of the period, was possible for both those going through magistrate positions in commanderies, and counties, as well as those receiving special appointments. Commandery Commandants (郡都尉) with the rank of bi 2000 shi, and Metropolitan Superintendents (內史) with the rank of 2000 shi ranked lower than Governors, and Royal Chancellors. Since Chancellors were tasked with directing, and supervising kings, their advancement opportunities were far fewer than those of Governors. Confucian literati without administrative experience were often tapped for positions not requiring direct management of the populace – Senior Tutor of a kingdom (王國太傅), and Superintendent of Capital (中尉), but rarely elevated to one of the Nine Ministers. There were far fewer of the latter than all officials with the rank of 2000 shi; they can be divided into four levels. Six of the Ministers with the rank of Superintendent of Trials (廷尉) or lower, as well as Three Prefects of the Capital Region (三輔長官) constituted the two bottom rungs, and were often recruited from commandery Governors, and Royal Chancellors. The Superintendent of the Palace (光祿勳), Superintendent of the Guards (衛尉), and Superintendent of Transport (太僕) were often elevated from other positions within the Nine Ministries, or from among officials with the rank of bi 2000 shi at the imperial court. The highest position – that of Superintendent of Ceremonies (太常) – was reserved for the nobility. Imperial Counsellors (御史大夫) were often chosen from among the Nine Ministers, and were frequently candidates for later promotion to Imperial Chancellor. Two possible paths for advancement to Imperial Chancellor can be defined: the “governor path” (地方大吏型), which allowed officials to climb the ranks from Governor, or Royal Chancellor, to one of the Nine Ministers, later to Imperial Counsellor, and finally to Imperial Chancellor; and the “secretariat path” (中朝官、理尚書事型), which allowed for bestowing of honorary titles to specially appointed officials at court, all the way to Nine Ministers, Counsellor, and finally Chancellor. A third way, called the “attendant path” (近侍型), existed for distaff imperial relatives, and personal favorites of the emperor, who became court attendants through bestowment of titles, went through positions in the imperial guard, finally becoming generals, or advising the emperor as Marshals of State (大司馬). This final path differed significantly to those open to regular officials. Following a path to promotion to the highest offices in the land by virtue of one’s personal relationship with the emperor was a phenomenon rarely seen in other dynasties.