教團、儀式、權力：東亞文化交流中的天台佛教

佛教東傳至中國並輾轉透過朝鮮半島傳入日本，日本佛教的歷史始終與文化交流息息相關，其中最具有代表性的例子，可說是日本天台宗的成立。天台宗是日本佛教史上最重要的宗派之一，深刻影響佛教在日本的發展。天台宗以中國的天台山為名，彰顯的正是其與中國佛教密不可分的關係。本文以天台佛教為主題，將以教團、儀式、權力三者為切入點，思考東亞文化交流中的天台佛教特質。天台佛教成立後，不可缺乏實際奉行此種教學的教團。天台佛教教團具有明確的地域性，除了天台山國清寺所在的台州、明州一帶，荊州玉泉寺也是重要的據點。在唐代，天台佛教並未與京城佛教界或是中央統治階級產生密切的聯繫，而是作為地方性的佛教。不過，天台佛教雖然偏於一方，卻因為鄰近港口，而具有相當程度的國際性。在佛教文化交流的歷史上，可以發現天台佛教曾經傳播至日本、韓國，也曾逆向地由日本、韓國輸入漢地已佚失的佛教文本，這種互動關係使得天台佛教成為東亞佛教文化交流中的一種重要資源。佛教文化作為一種資源，其內涵可以分為許多層次。首先，特定的教學傳統定義了教團的基調，對於特定經典的詮釋，是義理研究的範疇，也是過去佛教研究的主流。儀式，也是其中重要的一部分。教團內部往往存在各種的儀式規範，這些儀式規範反映出教團、教學傳統認同的價值觀。本文以天台佛教中成文的儀式文本為考察對象，正是希望能夠理解天台佛教如何看待以皇帝為首的統治階級。隨著天台佛教的傳播，儀式也作為天台佛教論述資源的一部分，被新教團所認識。日本天台宗建立的過程中，如何運用來自漢地天台佛教的儀式資源？這些資源如何被轉化？所謂東亞文化交流中的天台佛教，正是考察天台佛教作為一種資源，透過文化交流而逐步成立的過程。天台佛教以活躍於陳隋之際的智者大師智顗（538-597）為祖師。智顗率弟子入天台山修行，從此確立了天台山在中國佛教中的位置。若以《國清百錄》為依據，觀察智顗創作的儀式，可以發現當中特別重視以皇帝為頂點的統治集團，透過制度化的佛教儀式規範，具有一定程度的護國性質。考察智顗與統治者的互動關係，更可以確認智顗雖然以遠離政治核心的天台山為據點，卻從未斷絕與統治階層的聯繫。不過，此種天台佛教護國的概念卻未如同陳隋時期受到唐代統治者的注意，主要原因在於唐代政治中心不同於南朝，位於遙遠的關中地區。儘管在唐代其他佛教文獻中仍可觀察到與天台佛教共通的護國性質，唐代的天台佛教卻因為遠離政治中心長安，仍不受到統治者的青睞。唐代的天台宗侷限於明州一隅，卻因日本入唐僧作為中介者，而於日本發揚光大。九世紀初期，自天台山請益後回到日本的最澄（767-822），在桓武天皇（737-806，781-806在位）的支持下，以比叡山為據點建立了日本天台宗。比叡山的建立，可以視為最澄以及其後繼入唐僧對於中國天台佛教的再現。來自中國的經典、器物，都成為日本天台宗正統性及宗教權威的來源。另一方面，透過《三部長講會式》等日本獨有的天台宗儀式文本，則可以觀察到日本天台宗的在地性創造。無論是日本國的地理區劃，還是未見於中國佛教文化中的日本神祇、御靈，都說明日本天台宗在佛教儀式上吸收當地固有文化的現象。特別是，《三部長講會式》中反覆強調東方阿閦佛，不同於漢地天台宗佛教儀式中慣用的十方佛，反映出此一時期日本國家對於自身作為東方之國的認識。儘管這種創造性詮釋不斷強化日本天台宗的獨立性，比叡山僧眾仍堅信其佛教一脈相承自中國天台山。日本中世天台宗的百科全書式資料集《溪嵐拾葉集》，建構日本天台宗的護國系譜，重視的正是最澄與天台佛教護國思想的聯繫。事實上，從佛教儀式文本創作的角度考察，平安時代的日本天台宗的確具有許多創新。佛教儀式在平安時代並不單具有宗教意義，經常更富有濃厚的政治意涵，例如和平安王權緊密結合的御齋會。平安時代中後期，教團內部出現了一股儀式創作的風潮，其中最為出名者當推源信（942-1017）。源信有諸多作品傳世，包括逆輸入回中國的《往生要集》，可說是日本天台淨土教發展的重要推手，在日本更被視為日本佛教脫離中國佛教的重要里程碑。源信曾編撰一系列講式，作為特定儀式流程的操作手冊之用。觀察這些講式內容，可以發現源信在參考既有儀式流程的同時，並不拘泥於經典闡述，展現出極高的創作力，但核心仍是對於天台佛教論述資源的認識與吸收。與之相較，宋代的遵式（？-1015）雖然亦是天台淨土教的先驅，也有大量創作傳世，其儀式相關作品卻是嚴格地按照經典所述，展現出較強烈的文本權威思想。最後，觀察平安時代天台宗的歷史發展，可以發現天台宗建立之初與天皇的聯繫及護國宣言深刻影響到其教團特質。從天台座主、俗別當為首的比叡山寺院管理體制，可以觀察到日本天台宗直屬於以天皇為首的日本國，而不屈於既有僧官體制之下的現象。同時，天台座主的補任狀況也透露出天台宗以護國之名，行護國之事，而不願受攝政、關白掌控的情形。這種與政治勢力之間的交涉與衝突，也激發了天台宗內部的矛盾，使得山門派、寺門派的對立更加嚴重。最終，隨著鎌倉幕府的成立，天台宗的護國論述難以為武家政權援用，新興的禪宗亦在發展過程中強調其護國效益。政治社會的轉變，使得日本天台宗在平安時代的興盛後迎來一段相對的低潮期，直到德川政權建立又再次成為當政者援用的護國理論依據。

關鍵字

天台佛教；東亞文化交流；儀式文本；護國；天台座主

並列摘要

Japanese Buddhism was introduced from Korean Peninsula and China at the beginning, so the history of Japanese Buddhism can also be represented as a history of Cultural Interactions. One of the most significant examples is the establishment of Tendai school in the ninth century. Tendai school became one the most powerful schools in Japanese Buddhist history, and highly influenced the development of Japanese Buddhism. Tendai was named after the Tiantai school in China, and it revealed their tight connections within the East Asian Buddhism. My dissertation takes sangha, ritual, and power as different perspectives to inspect Tiantai/Tendai Buddhism, in order to consider the characteristics of Tiantai/Tendai Buddhism within East Asian cultural interactions. First, take sangha for example, Tiantai community were active around Taizhou, where Temple Guoqing located, Mingzhou area, and Temple Yuquan in Jingzhou. In Tang dynasty, Tiantai Buddhism had no clear connection with capital city or central government and kept its locality. At the same time, Tiantai Buddhism was highly international for its location. Tiantai texts have been introduced to Korea and Japan, and sometimes imported back to China as well. That is, this kind of interaction has made Tiantai Buddhism important resources in East Asian cultural interactions. Buddhist culture as resources can be related to different meanings, and ritual is one of them. Sangha defines their own rituals, and rituals reflect values they share. Inspecting ritual texts of Tiantai/Tendai Buddhism can help us understand how they regard the ruling class headed by emperor. With the transmission of Tiantai/Tendai Buddhism, rituals as part of the discourse resources were also comprehended. Thereafter, how would Japanese Tendai school utilize these ritual resources from Chinese Tiantai Buddhism? How did these resources transform? Tiantai/Tendai Buddhism in East Asian cultural interactions refers to a process that Tiantai/Tendai Buddhism as resources that gradually founded within cultural interactions in this dissertation. Zhiyi (538-597) was regarded the founder of Tiantai Buddhism. He led his followers to Mount Tiantai and establish the place as important Buddhist site in China ever since. Guoqing bailu provides clues to explore the rituals Zhiyi made for his followers, and in these rituals, ruling class that headed by emperor was highly respected and further systematized. Personally, Zhiyi had a close association with ruling class even while staying at a rather rural area, and his idea of state-protection never changed. But this state-protection idea was not noticed by the ruling class of Tang, because the center of politics had moved to Guanzhong area instead of the south. Via contemporary ritual texts, state-protection idea that related to Tiantai Buddhism can be observed among different areas in Tang. Meanwhile, Tiantai Buddhism in Tang never had the chance to reach out to the central ruling class because of its location. Although Tiantai Buddhism in Tang was limited to the Taizhou and Mingzhou area, with Japanese monk Saichō (767-822) as an agent, it transformed to Tendai Buddhism in Heian Japan. In the beginning of the ninth century, Saichō, who just finished his journey to Mount Tiantai, established Tendai school at Mount Hiei with the support of Emperor Kanmu (737-706). The establishment of temple at Mount Hiei, was a representation of Chinese Tiantai Buddhism in Japan by Saichō and his followers. Canons and other Buddhist items brought from China became the provenance of legitimacy for Japanese Tendai school. At the same time, Saichō's Sanbu chōkō eshiki, a Japanese Tendai ritual text, demonstrated local development of Tendai Buddhism. Japanese deities along with other elements that were absent in Tiantai ritual texts reflect the originality of Japanese Tendai school. Also, emphasizing Akṣobhya in ritual texts instead of chanting Buddhas of the ten directions, reflects the consciousness of Japan as an eastern country. Though this creative interpretation kept strengthening the distinctness of Japanese Tendai school, they till firmly believed in the straight connection with Chinese Tiantai. Keiran shuyoushu, an encyclopedia of Tendai in medieval Japan, was an excellent example, for it claims that the connection between Saichō and Tiantai/Tendai idea of state-protection was the very beginning to construct the lineage of state-protection idea. In fact, as for the production of Buddhist ritual texts, Japanese Tendai school indeed had many creations in Heian period. Especially in the latter half of Heian period, Genshin (942-1017) had a reputation for his innovative works, for he was the pioneer to inaugurate Japanese Buddhism. However, through investigating Genshin's ritual works, the tradition of both Tiantai and Tendai Buddhism still played an important role in his works but did not exactly conform to canons or previous ritual texts. His comprehension and digestion of Tiantai/Tendai Buddhist discourse had made him the best creator of ritual texts at the time. Meanwhile, Zunshi (?-1015) in Song China, who is also famous for ritual works, showed a different attitude toward ritual works. That is, Zunshi followed canons rather strictly, and represented the idea of textual authority. Finally, by observing the historical development of Tendai school in Heian Japan, the connection with Emperor and Saichō's statement of state-protection at the beginning of Tendai's foundation had deeply affected the characteristic of the sangha. The administration system of Tendai that headed by Tendai zasu was independent and directly related to Emperor. The court that led by Sessho and Kanpaku, along with Emperor, were regarded the top of national political structures, and they kept interaction with Tendai school which claimed to be state-protected. The latter part of Heian period was an important turning point of Japanese political powers. According to Tendai zasuki, Tendai monks did not follow the orders of sekkan regency, and they boycott what they claimed to be state-protected. The engagement and conflicts between sangha and sekkan regency encourage the antagonism toward different sects under Tendai. At last, with the establishment of Kamakura shogunate, Tendai's state-protection discourse clearly disobey what shogunate needed, so that Tendai school was in the doldrums until Tokugawa shogunate, that Tendai once again created a discourse that fulfill the demand of ruling class.