士與漢代文化摶成研究—儒學、吏事與方術的揉合與實踐

On Intellectuals and the Construction of Han Dynasty Culture: The Mixing and Praxis of Confucianism, Official Service and Occult Practices

白品鍵(Pin-Chien Pai)

指導教授 ： 張蓓蓓

國立臺灣大學/文學院/中國文學研究所/博士(2014年)

https://doi.org/10.6342/NTU.2014.02963

摘要

先秦兩漢的「士」可以從理想面與實際面分為兩種。就理想面來說，士當志於道，並以弘道為己任。這種理想中的士，在先秦時代以受儒家思想薰陶之儒士為主，他們不但有各種古典知識技能，且積極入世，以仁為己任。然而撇開理想性不談，士並不全以儒家思想為依歸，東周以降，士不但有諸子百家，甚至包含了雞鳴狗盜之徒。這些人與其他庸庸碌碌的庶民百姓不同，或者成一家之言，或者擁一技之長，形成所謂的「知識階層」。

學術的創新與融合乃戰國時代的文化特色，在游士的議論下，各家學術逐漸破除界線，為漢代文化提供了堅實的養分。在游士漸趨消失的漢代，以董仲舒為代表的儒生吸納諸子百家思想，形成了能被大一統王朝所接受的漢代儒學，並透過漢武帝的獨尊政策強力擴張，儒生也因此成了「士」最顯眼的部分，掩蓋了其他擁有特殊技能的知識份子。秦以法為治，漢承秦制，也就繼承了以律令治天下的政治制度，因此在儒生之外，另有明白律令、專精各種行政庶務的文吏。這群人或許沒有「志於道」的高尚情操，但卻是真正以實踐為學術的士人，同時也是漢代文化的中堅份子。儒生、文吏之外，又有方士，戰國游士中的燕齊方士由於秦皇、漢武之好求神仙，曾經炫耀一時，此後在歷史上似乎顯得無足輕重，然而方術信仰乃當時人們心靈之必須，生活之常備，方士看似隱為歷史之伏流，實則無所不在。

擁有學術或技能的士，則肩負著傳承己身知識的文化責任。儒學、吏事、方術三者堪稱漢代文化的主幹，透過種種傳播管道，幾乎對漢代社會的每一個角落都產生影響。這三種文化雖然各有其獨立性，但在漢代則互相影響，其關鍵在於漢代的士時常同時兼有儒生、文吏與方士三種身份。由於士兼有不同的學識技能，再加上其所掌握的文化傳播能力，各種不同文化於是以士為中心，在不同階層密切而活潑的交流著，摶成一種具有恢弘氣度，重視實踐的漢代文化。

歷史是一個發展的過程，漢代由分而合，最後又由合而分，其中有不少關鍵事件的發生，更不能忽略許多累積的過程。在士人的努力之下，文化逐漸由分散而趨向融合，雖然東漢時代開始出現各種大一統的異音，但整體而言都不能掩蓋那富有生氣，積極入世的文化。

關鍵字

儒生 ； 文吏 ； 方士 ； 漢代文化

並列摘要

The intellectuals during the pre-Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty could be discussed from two dimensions. Ideally, intellectuals should not only be determined to pursue Dao(道) but aspire to Dao. The Confucian scholars in the pre-Qin Dynasty were a typical case, who were well-read, engaged, and aspired to Ren(仁). In reality, however, not all of the intellectuals were Confucian scholars. During the Warring States period, intellectuals included Hundred Schools of Thought and people who knew small tricks. These people differed from the common ones. They formulated their theories or were well-equipped with professional skills, forming so-called the intelligentsia.
Culturally, the Warring States period featured academic innovation and integration. Under Travelling Scholars’ debates, schools of thought gradually broke their boundaries and nourished the Han Dynasty culture. In the Han Dynasty, where Travelling Scholars faded, Confucian scholars whose leading representative was Dong Zhong-shu(董仲舒) integrated the thoughts of Hundred Schools of Thought into the Han Dynasty Confucianism which could be accepted by the regime. With the advocate of Emperor Wu-Ti of the Former Han dynasty(漢武帝), Confucian scholars became the most conspicuous group among intellectuals. They concealed other intelligentsia with special skills. The Qin Dynasty emperors ran the states by laws, and the emperors in the Han Dynasty followed in the steps. For this reason, there were officials, being familiar with laws and administration affairs, aside from Confucian scholars in the Han Dynasty. The officials might not have noble sentiment to pursue Dao, but their knowledge and skills were completely from real action. They were one of the dependence in the Han Dynasty culture. Along with Confucian scholars and officials, there were alchemists. Among the Travelling Scholars in the Warring States period, the alchemists in the Yan state and the Qi state were once glamorous for the Qin dynasty emperor Shi-Huang's(秦始皇) and the Former Han dynasty emperor Wu-Ti’s seeking Daoist immortals. During that period, occult practices were a necessity of daily life. Afterwards, alchemists seemed to disappear in history but be ubiquitous.
The intellectuals with knowledge or skills held an important position to pass on knowledge. Confucianism, official service and occult practices were the main forces in the Han Dynasty culture. They caused full-scale influence over the Han Dynasty society in many ways. The three forces were independent but affected each other in the Han Dynasty. The reason was because the intellectuals were Confucian scholars, officials and alchemists in one. The intellectuals possessed different science and skills, and they knew well how to spread culture. Thus, different cultures surrounded the intellectuals and flew across each other closely and lively between the social classes, constructing the Han Dynasty culture which was imposing and focused on implementation.
History is a developing process, where some of the critical cases could not be neglected. Under the effort of the intellectuals, the Han Dynasty culture tended to blend. Though some social turbulence appeared during the Eastern Han Dynasty, the culture which was rich in vigor and engaged spirit wouldn’t be covered.

並列關鍵字

intellectuals ； Confucian scholars ； alchemists ； officials ； the Han Dynasty culture

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