印度及犍陀羅遺存本生圖像題材研究─與漢譯佛典關聯性

The Study of Themes of Jataka Remains in India and Gandhara and their Relation to the Chinese Buddhist Scriptures

謝淑妃(Shu-fei Hsieh)

指導教授 ： 林保堯

國立臺北藝術大學/美術學院學術論文/美術學系碩士班美術史組/碩士(2013年)

摘要

本生故事起源於西元前3世紀終左右，乃是基於對佛陀道德及人格的追慕，結合超人化想像及民間流行的輪迴思想，其故事內容大量擷取了古印度地區的聖賢故事、民間傳說等等。本生故事出現後，越來越多的本生故事被佛弟子創造出來，甚至到〝五百本生〞的規模，許多的本生經類也隨之被編輯成書。而初期大乘佛教菩薩的性質與種類實與本生經類的發展息息相關，此亦說明為何明明源起於原始佛典時代的本生故事圖像，卻處處充滿著大乘六度波羅密，甚至燃燈佛授記的思想。
然而由印度及犍陀羅各地本生圖像的遺存數量及種類來看，各地區及各時代明顯呈現出對本生圖像傳統不同的偏好情形。巴胡特後甚至出現〝南盛北衰〞的分歧現象；而阿姜塔雖時代較晚，卻重現對本生圖像的熱情。至於被學者公認與新疆佛教密切相關的犍陀羅，則呈現〝重佛傳、輕本生〞的圖像偏好，此現象應該與佛傳文藝、大小乘不同的佛身觀、菩薩觀、乃至於結合現世利益的轉輪聖王思想的興起有關。特別是燃燈佛授記本生的大量出現，更預示著本生轉向於佛傳、小乘轉向於大乘，其故事情節充份反映了大乘思想中最重要的授記與誓願。
動物及傍生題材的採用，於各時代、各地區差異性頗大。巴胡特動物題材頗受重視，但動物身份似乎尚未特別被強調。但到了山奇大塔、秣菟羅、犍陀羅時期，本生驟減，動物數量更是明顯減少，尤其是犍陀羅甚至只剩六牙白象1種。而動物王者的身份在山奇及犍陀羅被強調，但秣菟羅則較不明顯。南傳的阿瑪拉瓦提地區，甚至反南傳《本生經》傳統而行，動物傍生題材只出現4種，且動物及傍生主角身份幾乎全為王者。反而阿姜塔接近巴胡特，乃至南傳《本生經》的動物傍生眾多的傳統。
印度及犍陀羅現存77種本生題材中，至少有48種題材與漢譯佛典相關，而相關的佛典又高達71種以上，不可謂之不多。關聯性最高的為《六度集經》。值得注意的是，普為學者公認與新疆本生壁畫關聯性極高的《賢愚經》，與印度及犍陀羅相關本生題材數竟然只有5種。
此外，由現存本生圖像中，可以發現同一本生故事題材，於各地區卻形成不同藝術風格表現與敘事方式。巴胡特的簡樸、山奇的繁複、阿瑪拉瓦提的擁擠、變形與律動、秣菟羅的樸拙、犍陀羅的條理分明、阿姜塔的寫實再現、注重場景細節與氛圍營造等等，一一展現出各地區不同的風貌。
新疆克孜爾現存本生壁畫題材中，發現至少有20種題材與印度本土本生遺存相關，動物本生亦至少有21種，明顯異於犍陀羅地區本生圖像風貌，更完全不見犍陀羅地區最具代表性的燃燈佛授記本生，證明克孜爾地區本生壁畫與印度本土的淵源勝過犍陀羅。至於高昌地區本生壁畫稀少、且動物本生幾乎不見，之後又出現大量佛本行經變圖，應該比較接近犍陀羅的大乘風格。
由已知新疆與印度及犍陀羅間相關之20種題材中，相關漢譯佛典至少達63部。其中，《六度集經》無疑仍是關聯性最高的，達15種。推估新疆本生壁畫傳承自印度本土及犍陀羅古老的元素有之，但不排除相當多新的故事題材出自於《賢愚經》興起前後的時代，至於是否來自於巴利文《本生經》，抑或新出於中亞，尚待進一步研究。
敦煌莫高窟現存25則本生題材中與印度及犍陀羅相關的本生題材至少有8種，彼此間應具一定關聯性。相關漢譯佛典至少達38部。仍舊以《六度集經》關聯性最高。敦煌本生圖像某種程度似乎呈現出大小乘雜揉的現象，尤其是捨身求法的題材頻頻出現，不排除與當時《法華經》求法思想流行有關。
至於中原北方比較流行的本生圖像，縮減至菩薩投身飼虎本生、須達拏太子本生、晱子本生、燃燈佛授記本生4種，這應該是適應中原北方大乘佛教思潮被撿選的結果。
這些生動有趣，富教化意義的本生故事是否隨著時代而銷聲匿跡了呢？其實大量的本生譬喻故事，曾對中國各族民間故事的演變產生巨大的影響。反映出了來自於印度傳說、寓言等的本生經類故事，藉由佛經傳入中國，卻於千百年流傳後，又逐漸轉化成中國民間故事的有趣過程。

關鍵字

本生；巴胡特；薩埵太子本生；須達拏太子本生；六牙象本生；睒子本生；燃燈佛本生；六度集經；賢愚經

並列摘要

Jatakas date back to around the 3rd century B.C，which have been based on the pursuit of Buddha’s morality and dignity, combing the imagination of superlization and the popular reincarnation concept among the public. And the content of the story itself gathers a lot of saga and folk legends in ancient India. Once Jatakas appeared, more and more Jatakas were created by the following disciples, even to a scale of 500 Jatakas. Also, many of the Jatakas were compiled into scriptures. It can be seen that the nature and type of Bodhisattva of the Mahayana Buddhism at an early stage is related intimately to the development of Jataka scriptures, which also explains the reason why Jatakas originating from the initial stage of Buddhist scriptures, are, in reality, filled with the practice of Six Paramitas provoked by the Mahayana, even as well as the concept of the Vyakarana from Dipamkara.
However, judging from the remaining number and types of Jataka pictures everywhere in India and Gandhanra, the preferences for the tradition of Jataka pictures vary distinctively from one area to another, from age to age. After Bharhut, the divide of 〝Flourishing in the South, yet diminishing in the North〞even appeared. Ajanta caves, though in later times, regenerated the passion for Jataka pictures. As for Gandhanra, acknowledged by the researchers to be closely linked to Buddhism in Sinkiang, prefers Buddha’s biographies to Jatakas, which is supposed to be in connection with the emergence of the Biography literature of the Buddha、the different perspectives to Buddha and Bodhisattva between the Mahayana and Hinayana, even with the rising of Chakravartin, which combines contemporary benefits. Especially the booming of the belief of Dipamkara foreshadows the preference of Jatakas to turn to Buddhist’s biographies、the Hinayana to turn to the Mahayana, whose plots fully reflect the Vyakaranas and the affirmation, which are the most important among the Mahayana Buddhism.
The adoption of the themes of animals and tiryagyoni varies greatly in different areas in different times. In Bharhut, animal themes have been placed great emphasis, but the identity of animals hasn’t been particularly stressed. But in the times of Sanchi、Mathura、Gandhara, Jatakas reduced substantially, and there was a sharp decline in the number of animal themes, and especially in Gandhara, only the theme of Chaddanta( white six-tusked elephant) could be seen. And the imperial background of animal actors was quite emphasized in Sanchi and Gandhara, but in Mathura, it wasn’t that much emphasized. As to Amaravati in the southern part of India, even conflicting with the tradition of Pali –text Jatakas, where animal themes were adopted frequently and most of the actors were quite ordinary, only four animal themes remained, and all those actors in the mentioned Jatakas were almost the nobles. On the contrary, Ajanta contained many animal themes, like Bharhut, highly consistent with the tradition of Pali-text Jatakas.
Among the 77 kinds of Jataka themes existing in India and Gandhara, there are at least 48 themes linked to more than 71 Chinese Buddhist scriptures, which are definitely a lot. The highest correlation is The Liudu Ji Jing (22 themes). What is worth a mention is that The Sutra on the Wise and the Fool, which is generally acknowledged by the researchers to be highly correlated with Jataka murals in Sinkiang, surprisingly only relates to five of the Jataka themes in India and Gandhara.
In addition, out of the existing Jataka remains in India and Gandhara, one single theme could be discovered in different areas to have different artistic performances and narration. The simplicity in Bharhut, the sophistication in Sanchi, the tensive expression, transformation and dynamics in Amaravati, the plainness in Mathura, the precision in Gandhara, and the realism, focus in detail and atmospheres creation in Ajanta Caves, and so on, shows the different styles in different areas.
Among the 57 themes in Qyzyl, Sinkiang, at least 20 themes were found related to the existing Jataka remains in India, and there were at least 21 animal themes, which obviously differenct from what we have observed from Gandhara area. Expecially the most representative Dipamkara Jataka in Gandhara, couldn’t be found, which proved that in Qyzyl Jataka murals were more bound up with the Indian origin than Gandhara. As regards Turfan area, Jataka murals were only few and there was almost no animal theme Jataka, later with a large amount of transformation of Dipamkara, so it should be closer to the style of the Mahayana in Gandhara.
Out of the given related 20 themes among Sinkiang, India and Gandhara, correlated Chinese Buddhist scriptures are at least 63. Among them, The Liudu Ji Jing undoubtedly was the highest correlated (up to 15). Though it was obviously estimated that the Jataka murals in Sinkiang inherited the ancient elements from India and Gandhara, but there should be quite a few new story themes emerging from around the time of The Sutra on the Wise and the Fool, too. And the fact whether they were inherited from the Pali-text Jatakas or newly produced from the middle Asia requires to be researched further.
Out of the 25 Jataka themes existing in Tun-huang, there are at least 8 related to India and Gandhara. There must be correlations among one another. Those 8 related to at least 38 Chinese Buddhist scriptures. And The Liudu Ji Jing is still the highest correlated. To a certain degree, the Jataka murals in Tun-hung seem to present a combination of the Mahayana and the Hynayana. Especially the theme of 〝Sacrificing for Dharma〞appeared repeatedly, which probably had something to do with the popularity of The Lotus Sutura at that time.
The more popular Jataka pictures in the northern part of China were narrowed down to The Bodhisattva Sacrificing Himself to Feed the Hungry Tigers, Vesssantara, Sama, and Dipamkara, which would be the consequence of adjusting to Mahayana Buddhism prevailing in the northern part of China.
Till now, have these lively and moralized Jatakas disappeared as time goes by? As a matter of fact, a large number of Jatakas and Avadanas once had a huge impact on folktales in China, which reflects the interesting process that the Jataka themes from Indian legends and fables found its way to China through Buddhist scriptures and were passed down from generation to generation to gradually transform into Chinese folktales.

並列關鍵字

Jataka； Bharhut；The Bodhisattva Sacrificing Himself to Feed the Hungry Tigers；Vessantara；Chaddanta；Sama；Dipamkara；The Liudu Ji Jing；The Sutra on the Wise and the Fool

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