- 學位論文
使用對比語境於英語時態教學之成效研究
Effects of using contrastive context in teaching English tense-aspect
摘要
先前的研究指出，學習英語時態對台灣的英語學習者來說一直是相當困難的部分。然而，傳統的文法教學，太過著重於單一時態的文法解釋，並使用以句子為單位的例子來說明時態之使用，對於學習時態所面臨到的困難並無太大的助益。英語時態有著相當複雜的系統，以及其用法易受篇章或語境影響之特性，但傳統的時態教學過度著重於文法規則解釋和以單一句子為單位的例句，明顯地無法掌握英語時態的兩大特性。 本研究根據語言學上之對於時態之分析和學生於時態使用上之錯誤分析為基礎，並根據先前研究者所提的建議，提出一個英語時態的教學法。此方法的目的在於幫助學習者更完整深入地了解英語時態，使學習者了解如何選用正確的時態於特定的篇章或語境中，並希望藉此改善學生在寫作中的時態運用。 在這個教學法中，學習者透過對比之語境以學習英語時態。在對比語境中，欲學習之文法重點以斜體或加底線的方式加以強調，使得學習者能夠從篇章中注意到這些文法重點，進而了解時態的使用。 受試者為兩個同校的高中班級，學生英文程度約中級。其中一班透過對比語境學習時態，另一班則接受傳統的時態教學。在前測與後測中，受試者被要求完成兩種測驗題型─克漏字以及記敍文寫作。教學時間維持一個月，每個禮拜約接受一小時的時態教學。在實驗實施之前後受試者皆接受測驗，前測和後測的內容相同，但施測間隔超過一個月。本研究使用的統計方法包括描述性統計，Ｔ檢定，卡方檢定，共變數分析（ANOCOVA），和多元線性迴歸分析。 教學法的成效從學生在克漏字測驗以及記敍文寫作兩項表現做分析。克漏字測驗之目的在於評量學生在篇章中對於時態的了解。克漏字項目，包括26題過去式、12題現在完成式、以及10題過去完成式，學生在這三類時態上的表現，又加以個別分析。結果顯示，實驗組在整體的克漏字表現上，比另一組進步得多，並達顯著水準，而受試者於三項時態的個別表現，實驗組皆比傳統方法的對照組表現得好。此外，所有的克漏字測驗項目亦加以分析，並分類為：「句子中提供作答線索之項目」（sententially-cued items）以及「篇章或語境中提供作答線索之項目」（contextually-cued items）。接受傳統教學的對照組，原先被認為應在「句中提供作答線索之項目」上表現較好，因其強調時態與某些時間副詞的連用關係，但結果卻顯示，實驗組在這兩類上皆比對照組有更好的表現。這樣的結果可歸因於，傳統的時態教學過度強調時態與某些時間副詞的連用，但這卻容易使得學者產生錯誤的文法概念。 學生在記敍文寫作上的表現，亦從三個面項加以分析－－學生的時態架構使用（tense frame），時態使用之正確率（accuracy rate），以及時態使用之種類（tense-aspect variety）三項加以個別分析。結果顯示，實驗組在接受教學法之後，時態架構的使用較為固定，在描述同一件過去的事件中，顯著地減少從過去式不正確地轉換為現在式的次數。第二個面項為時態使用的正確率，然而在前後測的表現上，兩組皆無顯著進步，其原因已於文中探討。第三個面項為時態使用種類，其結果顯示，實驗組在教學之後，使用兩種以上時態（即增加現在完成式和過去完成式之使用）的學生人數明顯增加，並達顯著水準；而對照組雖顯示出類似的情況，但在統計上卻未達顯著。 在克漏字及記敍文寫作個別分析之後，線性迴歸分析被使用來探討學生在克漏字的表現以及記敍文寫作之間的關係。學生的記敍文寫作依據托福舊制的寫作評分量表（CBT Writing Rubric），將學生的整體寫作能力分為六個等級，由兩位評分者根據量表給分，並確認評分者之間的信度達八成以上。線性迴歸分析中所使用的預測參數（predictor）為學生的前測整體寫作級分，前後測克漏字分數，前後測時態使用正確率，以及前後測時態使用種類。線性迴歸分析的結果顯示，學生的前測整體寫作成績最能預測其最後的寫作表現，但克漏字的後測成績和時態種類的後測表現亦顯著地預測學生的最後寫作表現。文中將對此有更進一步的討論。 整體來看，此研究中所提出的時態教學法確實比傳統的時態教學更能夠幫助中等程度的學習者了解時態的概念。受試者的寫作中，時態的正確率上沒有顯著進步，可歸因於實驗時間過短，學習者缺乏時間練習，無法使文法學習成為寫作時有效的「監控策略(monitoring strategy)」，以監督其語言輸出(language production)的正確性。但此教學法的價值在於，學生能夠更了解時態與篇章或語境之關係，並在寫作中展現其時態使用的多樣性(tense-aspect diversity)，使學生更清楚且適切地描述記敍文中之事件。 此研究根據語言學分析以及學生的錯誤分析，統整前人在時態教學上所做的建議，發展出使用對比語境之時態教學法，並透過實證研究，證實此一方法對於學生的文法理解以及寫作能力確實有相當程度的助益，對於英語教師之時態教學提供了一個新選擇。
並列摘要
English tense-aspect system has long been recognized as a difficult grammatical feature for students to learn. However, traditional grammar instruction which focuses on single rule explanation with illustrations in sentence examples is unsuccessful in addressing learner difficulty in tense-aspect learning, as it fails to capture the tense-aspect characteristics as being a complex system and being subjective to context or discourse. The present study, based on the linguistic analysis of English tense-aspect and the learner error analysis, as well as the suggestions in previous studies, proposes that Contrastive-Context can be used to help learners have better understanding toward the various tense-aspect types at a larger text level and make better tense-aspect choice in their writing. In this teaching method, structured input techniques are used in presenting the Contrastive Context in which different tense-aspect types appear. Two intact classes of high school students are recruited—one receiving the Contrastive-Context Method of instruction and the other the traditional rule-explanation instruction. In the pre- and post- tests, the subjects are required to take a cloze test and write a narrative; the former intends to gather information concerning the subjects’ understanding toward English tense-aspect, while the latter attempts to examine the subjects’ tense frame use, tense-aspect accuracy and variety after the treatments. Descriptive statistic tools and inferential statistic tools, including T-test, Chi-square, ANCOVA, and regression analysis are performed to analyze the data. The effects of the different tense-aspect instructions are examined from many perspectives, including the participants’ performance on the cloze-test items and narrative writing. The cloze test items include 26 simple past items, 12 present perfect items, and 10 past perfect items. The learners’ performance on the individual types is further analyzed. The result shows that the Contrastive-Context Group improved significantly more than the other group on the overall cloze test items. As for the performance on the three individual types, the Contrastive-Context Group also outperformed the other on all the measures. Another analysis was conducted to explore the effects of the treatments on the sententially-cued items and contextually-cued items. The Traditional-Method Group was previously expected to outperform the Contrastive-Context Group on the sententially-cued items. Yet, the result showed that the Contrastive-Context Group did a better job on both of the categories. One of the reasons might be that the traditional method places emphasis on the teaching of the collocation of a particular tense-aspect type and temporal adverbials. This, however, may trap the learners into framing false grammatical concepts. The participants’ performance on the narrative writing is also investigated from three aspects—the tense frame used in writing, tense-aspect accuracy rates, and tense-aspect varieties. There were some findings of great significance and interest. First, the Contrastive-Context Group significantly reduced inaccurate shifts from past to present tense frame in describing the same past events. Second, with respect to the tense-aspect accuracy, both of the groups did not improve significantly after the treatment, the reason for which was discussed in the thesis. Third, concerning the variety use, the result showed that the number of participants who used more than two tense-aspect types increased significantly in the Contrastive-Context Group after the treatment. Though the Traditional-Method Group also revealed similar improving patter, the number of increase did not achieve significant level as revealed by a Chi-square analysis. After the analysis of learner performance on the cloze test items and narrative writing separately, it is necessary to explore the relationships between the learners’ grammatical understanding and narrative writing. The students’ essays were rated using TOFEL CBT rating rubric, which gave a holistic score to measure the participants’ overall writing ability. To insure good inter-rater reliability, the two raters underwent a rater-training process and a re-rating phase before and after rating respectively. The general narrative writing ability was then rated into six levels based on the rating scale. The predictors for the regression analysis were the learners’ pre-writing ranking scores, pre- and post- cloze test scores, pre- and post- accuracy rate of tense-aspect use, pre- and post- use of tense-aspect varieties. The result showed that the participants’ pre- writing ability was the strongest predictor, but the learners’ post- cloze test scores and post- variety use were also significant predictors for learners’ final writing success. There is a further discussion in the thesis. Above all, the proposed method is indeed more effective than the traditional method in helping intermediate-leveled learners understand the concept of English tense-aspect. Although in the narrative writing, the learners did not improve significantly with respect to tense-aspect accuracy, this could not downgrade the value of the proposed method. One of the reasons could be a lack of time for the participants to practice what they learned, which prevent them from turning the grammatical rules they learned in class into effective monitoring strategies for language production, which usually comes with repeated practice. The value of the proposed study is that it is conducive to the development of grammatical concept concerning how English tense-aspect works at a discoursal or contextual level; furthermore, it encourages learners to demonstrate diversity of tense-aspect use in describing the events more clearly and properly. This study contributes to the research line of tense-aspect instruction by supporting the view with empirical evidence that contrast and context are helpful for learners to understand the tense-aspect to a larger text level. As for its impact on writing, it significantly reduces the learners’ inaccurate tense shifts, and helps them show tense-aspect diversity in narrative writing. This study provides the English teachers in Taiwan with a good alternative to deal with the problems the learners may face in learning tense-aspect.