明清學田的變遷

學田是儒學各項經費的總稱，內容包含田土實物租、不動產租金、資本利息收入等。學田在中國歷史上歷經兩階段的發展，第一階段是在宋元時代，此時學田做為儒學主要的經費，但這發展卻在明初嘎然而止，因為明太祖將前代遺留下來的學田收歸地方政府管轄，然後再以提供祭祀孔廟經費為由，向全國儒學撥發學田糧，由於編列預算過多與各地財政狀況不同，導致大多數地方政府無力負擔，最終造成這項政策難以為繼。而明代儒學經費配置，則轉變成由朝廷編列廩糧，供應儒學師、生、吏薪資，並特別儲放於儒學倉，以視儒學經費的獨立性。再者，儒學祭祀與其他事務的費用，在大多數地區則是以人民承役方式解決。明中葉之後，生員人數早已超出儒學負荷，這人數壓力造成明初師生同居共學的教育模式瓦解，儒學漸褪去教育功能，其職能轉型為定期舉辦課試，作為生員日後通往科舉、國子監晉升的前置機構，但隨著其相關業務增加，儒學經費是不減反增，也逐漸超出政府編列的預算，而這經費的差額往往轉嫁於生員身上。儒學經費吃緊的現實壓力，促成明代學田再度興起，學田收入被用於作為儒學各項業務的補充經費。再者，每當社會動盪之下，越來越多生員出現難以維生的問題，學田也肩負起賑濟貧生的職能。明代學田的管理，大多取決於地方儒學，管理人員以生員為主體，各級官員只是監管，朝廷並沒有明顯的統一政策。明清易代之後，清朝以清承明制為號召安定人心，但在第一時間卻未意識到學田的重要性。直到軍費需求的壓力，對於儒學經費進行大規模裁減，徹底破壞儒學既有的經費結構，朝廷甚至無力再對廩膳生員進行補助，經過地方官員的提醒，朝廷才關注到學田，這項原屬於地方官紳自主性地為儒學與生員提供的補充經費。於是朝廷要求進行全國性的學田普查，將大多數學田劃為額定學田起解，將此學租納入奏銷冊中，並明列於賦役全書的額外部分。額定學租名義上是用於賑濟貧生，但由於儒學經費裁減太超過，導致起解的學租不少是流向填補於儒學各項開支之中，生員實際上獲得的補助甚微，學田也漸失賑濟貧生的功能。當清朝鼓吹書院、義學等新興教育機構建設時，許多地方也是運用額定學租，來做為建置書院、義學的初期資金，並透過聘請優良、清寒生員作為書院、義學教師，變相地讓學租依舊發揮救濟、獎勵生員的功能。所以明清各式教育機構看似一脈相承，但透過考察學租這項重要經費的配置變化，可以發現這些教育機構內，所挹注的經費比重是有極大差異，而資源配置的轉變，也影響這些機構日後的發展。到了清代，學田實質管理者從生員轉移到地方紳士，面對起解學租的壓力教官無力應付，許多地區教官自願將學租起解權交到地方政府手上。這造成儒學學田的管理方式與書院、義學大同小異，基本模式都是官方監理，自身按章程行事。晚明以降，章程規則越來越細緻，往往包含資產建置、每年收入總額、徵收方式、經費開支細目以及監理方式。直到清末，四川省有學田局的出現，對於各式教育機構的財產進行統合性管理與經費撥發。明清學田發展的風潮，起於成化、弘治年間，於嘉靖、隆慶時期日漸普及，到萬曆之後已成為常見的助學手段。地方官紳將設置學田，視為幫助生員達到士貴自立的手段。因此，學田主要功用是在生員求學期間，給予雪中送炭而非錦上添花。即使是科舉成就是眾人所關注的文教指標，也唯有當學租充裕地區，足以在養士、課試、賓興上提供全方面補助，才易見學田在科舉上發揮其成效。而學田是地方公產，有著任何人不得任意侵奪的地位，每當人民遭遇到土地糾紛時，常常以捐田入學的名義，將田骨權讓渡給教育機構，換取官方對於自身財產的保障。使得捐田入學不似單純作興文教，實有現實的考量。

關鍵字

學田；儒學經費；清承明制；資源配置

並列摘要

“School Land” is the general term for various funds of Confucian schools, including land rent, real estate rent, and Interest income. “School Land” can be divided into two stages in the development of Chinese history. In the first stage, it was the main fund for Confucianism during the Song and Yuan Dynasties. But it stopped in the early Ming Dynasty.In the Ming Dynasty, the funds for Confucian schools were exchanged for other ways.The expenses of public officials and students in the Confucian schools shall be borne by the farm rent, and the sacrifices and other official duties are supported by the fiscal canton system. Until the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the surge in the number of students caused a lack of funding.In order to solve the problem of Confucian schools funding, local officials and elites have also used the method of establishing “School Land” to expand Confucian schools funding. This new fund will also solve the problem of helping poor students. Most of the”School Land” management in the Ming Dynasty was led by Sheng-yüan(生員), and officials at all levels were only supervised. But in the Qing Dynasty, the manager moved to the degree holding literatus(地方紳士).In the Ming Dynasty, the central government did not have a management system for “School Land”. In the Qing Dynasty, the importance of ”School Land” was noticed because the government transferred the Confucian schools funds to military expenses and the Confucian schools’s funds were insufficient.Therefore, for the first time, a national statistical survey was conducted on School Land rent, and the tuition fees were paid to the officials of the central government’s education commissioner(提學、學政) on a regular basis every year. This fund is independently called a “Fixed School Land rent”. “Fixed School Land rent” must be listed under the other parts of the Complete Book of Land Tax and Service(賦役全書). But,the pressure of transferring revenue“Fixed School Land rent” every year forces many local education officials to voluntarily give tax collection rights to local officials to perform. The management rules for starting the”School Land” in the late Ming Dynasty are becoming more and more detailed.The awareness of the”School Land” in the society is getting stronger and stronger. This trend began in the Ch’eng-hua(成化) reign, generally in the Chia-ching(嘉靖) reign, and became a common sense after the Wan-li(萬曆) reign.Until the late Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, various educational institutions are also aware of the importance of owning”School Land” and funding management.In the late Qing Dynasty, Sichuan Province also had an institution that unified the management of the assets of various educational institutions. It’s name called the “School Land Ju”.(學田局) The importance of ”School Land” in society is because people believed that investing in school is a means of helping elites to be independent. Based on the high degree of consensus on the importance and protection of ”School Land” in the society. The people give the land to the school and let the school act as the landowner, pay the land tax and lease the land to themselves for a long time. The people donate the fields not for education, but to defend their own property.