從“格物致知”到“科學”、“生產力”―知識體系和文化關係的思想史研究

本文利用中國近現代思想史專業數據庫〔該庫收錄清末民初(1830-1915)和新文化運動(1915-1926）近6,000萬字的重要思想史文獻〕，通過「格致」、「科學」、「常識」、「技術」等關鍵詞在數據庫文獻中使用的頻度統計，特別是分析這些關鍵詞在不同時期意義類型的變化，來探討中國文化現代轉型中知識系統的結構與功能的演化，並據此研究中國現代政治文化中科學主義是怎樣形成的，以及它與西方科學主義的差異。首先，我們分析指出從明末到1900年以前，中文一直用「格致」來指涉science，這是由於受到程朱理學特有的整合知識和道德的模式以及中國近代傳統形成所代表的普遍觀念的支配，是中國文化常識理性的體現。「科學」一詞在中文裡本是科舉、學校之簡稱。我們發現，1900年後「科學」一詞取代「格致」用於翻譯science，恰好發生在1902年至1905年間，其過程與新政廢科舉同步。從思想史角度看，兩者之所以同步，是清廷為了推行廢科舉和立憲改革，不得不採用中西二分的二元論意識形態，現代知識與儒家道德劃清界線，知識分子終於接受用沒有道德色彩的分科之學的「科學」來指涉science。其次，我們對《新青年》中「科學」、「常識」這兩個詞以及相應關鍵詞的使用頻度和意義分析的結果表明：科學這一在新文化運動中形成的中國現代文化重要觀念，從那時就被賦予沿襲至今的兩種意義及功能。第一，它作為現代常識，恢復了類似程朱理學那種從常識合理的知識系統推出道德倫理價值的論證結構，科學既用於批判儒家倫理和封建迷信，也可以建構新意識形態，是日後馬列主義中國化的思想基礎。第二，它往往同時包括現代技術，即「科學」與「技術」混用，可以涵蓋了原來儒學經世致用的內容。我們的研究發現：「科學」取代「格致」雖然意味著中國文化的知識系統（及其應用）在西方衝擊下的現代轉型，但新文化運動中知識系統和新意識形態（現代價值系統）的關係卻保持同構。它表明在不同的文明中，知識系統在文化價值中的定位可能是不同的，而且這種定位沒有隨著知識系統和傳統文化現代轉型而根本改變。

關鍵字

格致；科學主義；中國近現代思想史；科學技術史；觀念史

並列摘要

This essay examines the transformation of the function and structure of the knowledge system of Chinese culture by performing frequency counts and meaning analyses of such terms as gezhi (gaining knowledge by studying of the principle of matters), kexue (science), changshi (common sense) and jishu (technology). The research was conducted with the help of a database specialized for the study of modern Chinese intellectual history. We investigate the formation and structure of scientism in modem Chinese political culture. We also examine the differences between Chinese scientism and its Western counterpart. First, we determined that the term gezhi was used to refer to ”science” since the late Ming dynasty because of the emphasis on the integration of knowledge and morals by the Cheng-Zhu School of Neo-Confucianism and the formation of the modem Chinese tradition. It was a manifestation of the common-sense rationality of Chinese culture. Second, the term kexue was originally used as the short form for keju (imperial civil service examination system) and xuexiao (school) in Chinese. The replacement of gezhi by kexue happened between 1902 and 1905-the same period that the abolition of the examination system took place. We analyzed the reasons why these two events coincided from the perspective of intellectual history, finding that the Qing government had adopted a dualistic ideology that maintained a demarcation between China and the West. It used this ideology as the foundation of its abolition of the examination system and the launching of constitutional reform. This dualism resulted in the divorce of ”science” from ”morals.” Chinese intellectuals thus began to use the amoral kexue to denote ”science.” By doing frequency counts and meaning analyses of kexue, changshi and other related terms, we found that as an important concept of modern Chinese culture that took shape during the New Culture Movement, kexue has been given two different meanings. First, as modern common sense, it was seen as the revival of a justification structure similar to that of the Cheng-Zhu School of Neo-Confucianism. This justification structure was used to determine the moral values from a knowledge system based on common-sense rationality. Kexue was used to attack superstition and served as the basis of a new ideology. Second, it was often used to refer to both science and technology and covered the contents of the Confucian concept of jingshi zhiyong (practical application of knowledge to governing the country). We found that although the replacement of gezhi by kexue symbolizes the modern transformation of the knowledge system of Chinese culture (and its application) under the impact of the West, the relationship between the knowledge system and the new ideology (modern value system) remained isomorphic during the New Culture Movement. This proves that the positioning of the knowledge system and new ideologies (modern value systems) may vary according to the values of different civilizations while this positioning does not change with the modern transformation of knowledge systems and traditional cultures.