本研究旨在探討觀賞帶有負向情緒的藝術時，負向情緒與美感情緒二者的關係和產生的順序性，以及心理距離對於情緒反應可能造成的影響。人們在接觸帶有情緒表達的藝術作品的過程中，可能會有美感情緒以及一般情緒的產生，但這兩種情緒的關係過去討論甚少。針對此一議題，根據以往研究之結果，本研究提出二者的關係可能為具共存性，獨立性以及不同時產生的特性，並且觀看者在接觸刺激時的心理距離狀態也會影響情緒反應。為驗證以上假設，本研究以藝術作品及其修改版為材料，操弄其情緒向度與美感程度，在不同的心理距離下進行欣賞，而以fEMG作爲情緒反應的測量工具，藉以分析人們在觀看負向情緒藝術作品時，所引發情緒之間的關係，也嘗試提出全新的情境相減方法，試圖在生理數據上分解單純美感情緒反應與單純基本情緒反應兩成分。實驗結果驗證了美感情緒與一般情緒的關係存在共存性及不同時性，並只有在足夠遠的心理距離下才能有美感情緒的產生，然而兩種情緒之間的獨立性則未獲支持。另外，兩種情緒產生的時間順序上，除了符合DEM的理論外，也發現了早期（1-2s）的美感情緒產生，顯示美感情緒可能在早期美感經驗中即已參與。本研究為第一篇探討美感情緒與一般情緒在時間向度上關係，並試圖利用生理測量拆分情緒之研究，為神經美學領域做出全新的貢獻。

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between negative emotions and aesthetic emotion and the order of their generation, as well as the effects of psychological distance on emotional response when viewing arts with negative emotions. There may be aesthetic emotion and basic emotion experienced when people are in touch with artworks of emotional expression, but the relationship between these two emotions was rarely discussed in the past. To address this issue, based on the results of previous research, the relationship between these two emotions is proposed to be co-existent and independent, to be produced at different time during experience. In addition, the state of psychological distance is expected to affect the emotional response of the viewer. To verify these hypotheses, using original and modified artworks as the materials, the emotional valence and aesthetic level of the materials were examined for their manipulation. The artworks were viewed either in far or close psychological distance. The fEMG was used as a tool to reflect the emotional responses. A tentative way for decomposing the reaction of aesthetic emotion and basic emotion in physiological data by subtraction method were proposed, also. The results supported the hypotheses of co-existence and asynchrony, but not independency of the relationship between two emotions. Furthermore, aesthetic emotion might only be generated in the far psychological distance. The generation sequence of the two emotions was consistent with the DEM. Furthermore, an early (1-2s) component of aesthetic emotion was also found, indicating that aesthetic emotion might be involved in early aesthetic experience. This study was the first to explore the relationship between aesthetic emotion and basic emotion in terms of time, and attempted to decompose emotions with physiological measures, contributing more information to the field of neuroaesthetics.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1
1.1 Aesthetic Experience ..................................................................................... 1
1.2 Aesthetic Emotion ......................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Inconsistent Emotion in Art Appreciation .......................................... 4
1.2.2 Mixed Emotion ................................................................................... 5
1.3 Other hypotheses on inconsistent aesthetic emotion and basic emotion ....... 6
1.3.1 Sequentially Generated ....................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Simultaneous but Independent .............................................................7
1.4 Distance Embrace Model ............................................................................... 8
1.4.1 Distance factors ................................................................................... 8
1.4.2 The necessity of negative emotions in arts ......................................... 11
1.5 Issues of current findings ...............................................................................12
1.6 Hypothesis .....................................................................................................15
1.6.1 Parallelism Hypothesis ...................................................................... 18
1.6.2 Asynchrony Hypothesis ..................................................................... 19
1.6.3 Psychological Distancing Hypothesis ................................................ 20
CHAPTER 2: METHOD ............................................................................................ 22
2.1 Participants .................................................................................................... 22
2.2 Materials ........................................................................................................ 22
2.3 Experimental Design ..................................................................................... 24
2.4 fEMG and SCR Recordings ........................................................................... 26
2.5 Procedure ....................................................................................................... 26
2.6 fEMG and SCR Analysis .............................................................................. 29
2.6.1 Decomposition of Aesthetic Emotion and Basic Emotion ................. 30
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS .......................................................................................... 32
3.1 Behavioral Results ...................................................................................... 32
3.1.1 The Rating of Aesthetic Level ......................................................... 32
3.1.2 The Rating of Viewer Preference ..................................................... 33
3.1.3 The Rating of Negative Emotional Valence .................................... 35
3.1.4 The Rating of Negative Emotional Arousal .................................... 36
3.1.5 The Rating of Positive Emotional Valence ..................................... 37
3.1.6 The Rating of Positive Emotional Arousal ..................................... 38
3.1.7 The Duration ................................................................................... 39
3.1.8 Time of Transition ........................................................................... 40
3.2 SCR Results ................................................................................................ 41
3.3 fEMG Result ............................................................................................... 42
3.3.1 General Analysis ............................................................................. 42
3.3.1.1 M. Corrugator Supercilii ...................................................... 43
3.3.1.2 M. zygomaticus .................................................................... 45
3.3.2 The Verification of the Psychological Distancing Hypothesis ......... 46
3.3.3 Decomposition of Aesthetic Emotion and Basic Emotion ............... 50
3.3.3.1 M. Corrugator Supercilii ...................................................... 51
3.3.3.2 M. Zygomaticus ................................................................... 51
3.3.4 The Verification of the Parallelism Hypothesis ............................... 52
3.3.5 The Verification of the Asynchrony Hypothesis .............................. 53
CHAPTER 4 : DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 55
4.1 The Parallelism Hypothesis ........................................................................ 57
4.2 The Asynchrony Hypothesis ....................................................................... 61
4.3 The Psychological Distancing Hypothesis .................................................. 62
4.4 The Implications of DEM ........................................................................... 64
4.5 Viewing Duration and Transition Times ...................................................... 66
4.6 Further Implications .................................................................................... 67
4.7 Contributions of the present study ............................................................... 68
4.8 Limitations of the present study ................................................................... 69
CHAPTER5: CONCLUSION ................................................................................. 71
CHAPTER 6: REFERENCES ................................................................................. 72 APPENDIX 1: Provenances and Rating Score of each Stimuli ............................... 80

Achaibou, A., Pourtois, G., Schwartz, S., & Vuilleumier, P. (2008). Simultaneous recording of EEG and facial muscle reactions during spontaneous emotional mimicry. Neuropsychologia, 46(4), 1104-1113. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.10.019
Aguado, L., Román, F. J., Rodríguez, S., Diéguez-Risco, T., Romero-Ferreiro, V., & Fernández-Cahill, M. (2013). Learning of Facial Responses to Faces Associated with Positive or Negative Emotional Expressions. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 16, E24. doi:10.1017/sjp.2013.31
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is Stronger than Good. Review of General Psychology, 5(4), 323-370. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323
Benedek, M., & Kaernbach, C. (2010a). A continuous measure of phasic electrodermal activity. J Neurosci Methods, 190(1), 80-91. doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2010.04.028
Benedek, M., & Kaernbach, C. (2010b). Decomposition of skin conductance data by means of nonnegative deconvolution. Psychophysiology, 47(4), 647-658. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00972.x
Berenbaum, H. (2002). Varieties of joy-related pleasurable activities and feelings. Cognition and Emotion, 16(4), 473-494. doi:10.1080/0269993014000383
Bullough, E. (1912). ‘Psychical Distance’ as a Factor in Art and as an Aesthetic Principle. British Journal of Psychology, 5, 87-117.
Busselle, R., & Bilandzic, H. (2008). Fictionality and Perceived Realism in Experiencing Stories: A Model of Narrative Comprehension and Engagement. Communication Theory, 18(2), 255-280. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2008.00322.x
Cacioppo, J. T., & Gardner, W. L. (1999). EMOTION. Annual Review of Psychology, 50(1), 191-214. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.191
Carrera, P., & Oceja, L. (2007). Drawing mixed emotions: Sequential or simultaneous experiences? Cognition & Emotion, 21(2), 422-441. doi:10.1080/02699930600557904
Charles, S. T. (2005). Viewing injustice: greater emotion heterogeneity with age. Psychol Aging, 20(1), 159-164. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.1.159
Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed Emotions Across Adulthood: When, Where, and Why? Current opinion in behavioral sciences, 15, 58-61. doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007
Chatterjee, A. (2003). Prospects for a cognitive neuroscience of visual aesthetics. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts, 4(2), 55-60. doi:10.1037/e514602010-003
Chatterjee, A., & Vartanian, O. (2016). Neuroscience of aesthetics. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1369(1), 172-194. doi:10.1111/nyas.13035
Cupchik, G. (2002). The Evolution of Psychical Distance As an Aesthetic Concept. Culture & Psychology, 8, 155-187. doi:10.1177/13567X02008002437
Dubé, L., & Le Bel, J. (2003). The content and structure of laypeople's concept of pleasure. Cognition and Emotion, 17(2), 263-295. doi:10.1080/02699930302295
Ersner-Hershfield, H., Mikels, J. A., Sullivan, S. J., & Carstensen, L. L. (2008). Poignancy: Mixed emotional experience in the face of meaningful endings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(1), 158-167. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.158
Forster, M., Leder, H., & Ansorge, U. (2013). It felt fluent, and I liked it: subjective feeling of fluency rather than objective fluency determines liking. Emotion, 13 2, 280-289.
Fridlund, A. J., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Guidelines for human electromyographic research. Psychophysiology, 23(5), 567-589. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1986.tb00676.x
Frijda, N. H. (1988). The laws of emotion. American Psychologist, 43(5), 349-358. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.43.5.349
Fujimura, T., Sato, W., & Suzuki, N. (2010). Facial expression arousal level modulates facial mimicry. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 76(2), 88-92. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.02.008
Gerger, G., & Leder, H. (2015). Titles change the esthetic appreciations of paintings. Front Hum Neurosci, 9, 464. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00464
Gerger, G., Leder, H., & Kremer, A. (2014). Context effects on emotional and aesthetic evaluations of artworks and IAPS pictures. Acta Psychol (Amst), 151, 174-183. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.06.008
Gerger, G., Pelowski, M., & Leder, H. (2018). Empathy, Einfuhlung, and aesthetic experience: the effect of emotion contagion on appreciation of representational and abstract art using fEMG and SCR. Cogn Process, 19(2), 147-165. doi:10.1007/s10339-017-0800-2
Goldstein, T. R. (2009). The pleasure of unadulterated sadness: Experiencing sorrow in fiction, nonfiction, and "in person.". Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 3(4), 232-237. doi:10.1037/a0015343
Grühn, D., Lumley, M. A., Diehl, M., & Labouvie-Vief, G. (2013). Time-based indicators of emotional complexity: interrelations and correlates. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 13(2), 226-237. doi:10.1037/a0030363
Green, M., Chatham, C., & Sestir, M. (2012). Emotion and transportation into fact and fiction. Scientific Study of Literature, 2. doi:10.1075/ssol.2.1.03gre
Green, M., Kass, S., Carrey, J., Herzig, B., Feeney, R., & Sabini, J. (2008). Transportation Across Media: Repeated Exposure to Print and Film. Media Psychology - MEDIA PSYCHOL, 11, 512-539. doi:10.1080/15213260802492000
Greenlee, M. W., & Tse, P. U. (2008). Functional Neuroanatomy of the Human Visual System: A Review of Functional MRI Studies. In (pp. 119-138): Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Grodal, T. (2007). Pain, Sadness, Aggression, and Joy: An Evolutionary Approach to Film Emotions. Projections, 1, 91-107. doi:10.3167/proj.2007.010107
Hanfling, O. (2000). Five kinds of distance. The British Journal of Aesthetics, 40(1), 89-102. doi:10.1093/bjaesthetics/40.1.89
Hanich, J., Wagner, V., Shah, M., Jacobsen, T., & Menninghaus, W. (2014). Why We Like to Watch Sad Films. The Pleasure of Being Moved in Aesthetic Experiences. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 8, 130. doi:10.1037/a0035690
Hess, U., Arslan, R., Mauersberger, H., Blaison, C., Dufner, M., Denissen, J. J. A., & Ziegler, M. (2017). Reliability of surface facial electromyography. Psychophysiology, 54(1), 12-23. doi:10.1111/psyp.12676
Hunter, P. G., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2010). Music and Emotion. In (Vol. 10, pp. 129-164).
Jakesch, M., Leder, H., & Forster, M. (2013). Image Ambiguity and Fluency. PLOS ONE, 8(9), e74084. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074084
Künecke, J., Hildebrandt, A., Recio, G., Sommer, W., & Wilhelm, O. (2014). Facial EMG responses to emotional expressions are related to emotion perception ability. PLOS ONE, 9(1), e84053-e84053. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084053
Kampe, K. K. W., Frith, C. D., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, U. (2001). Reward value of attractiveness and gaze. Nature, 413, 589.
Kashdan, T. B., Barrett, L. F., & McKnight, P. E. (2015). Unpacking emotion differentiation: Transforming unpleasant experience by perceiving distinctions in negativity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(1), 10-16.
Kawakami, A., Furukawa, K., Katahira, K., & Okanoya, K. (2013). Sad music induces pleasant emotion. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(311). doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00311
Koelsch, S. (2012). Brain and music. On Brain and music.: Wiley-Blackwell.
Kreibig, S., Samson, A., & Gross, J. (2015). The psychophysiology of mixed emotional states: Internal and external replicability analysis of a direct replication study: Psychophysiology of mixed emotions: Replicability. Psychophysiology, 52. doi:10.1111/psyp.12425
Krämer, N. C., & Witschel, T. (2010). Demystifying the Sad Film Paradox: A Critical Analysis of the Question of Why People Enjoy the Reception of Sad Films. Paper presented at the Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Suntec Singapore International Convention & Exhibition Centre, Suntec City, Singapore. http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p404615_index.html
Kuijpers, M., Hakemulder, F., Tan, E., & Doicaru, M. (2014). Exploring absorbing reading experiences: Developing and validating a self-report scale to measure story world absorption. Scientific Study of Literature, 4. doi:10.1075/ssol.4.1.05kui
Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095-1110. doi:10.1037/a0021846
Larsen, R. J., & Prizmic, Z. (2008). Regulation of emotional well-being: Overcoming the hedonic treadmill. In The science of subjective well-being. (pp. 258-289). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.
Lausberg, H. (1998). Handbook of Literary Rhetoric: A Foundation for Literary Study (M. T. Bliss & A. Jansen, Trans. D. E. Orton & R. D. Anderson Eds.).
Leder, H., Belke, B., Oeberst, A., & Augustin, D. (2004). A model of aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic judgments. Br J Psychol, 95(Pt 4), 489-508. doi:10.1348/0007126042369811
Leder, H., Gerger, G., Brieber, D., & Schwarz, N. (2014). What makes an art expert? Emotion and evaluation in art appreciation. Cogn Emot, 28(6), 1137-1147. doi:10.1080/02699931.2013.870132
Lundqvist, L.-O., & Dimberg, U. (1995). Facial expressions are contagious. Journal of Psychophysiology, 9(3), 203-211.
Magai, C., Consedine, N. S., Krivoshekova, Y. S., Kudadjie-Gyamfi, E., & McPherson, R. (2006). Emotion experience and expression across the adult life span: insights from a multimodal assessment study. Psychol Aging, 21(2), 303-317. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.2.303
Mcgraw, A. P., & Warren, C. (2010). Benign violations: making immoral behavior funny. Psychol Sci, 21(8), 1141-1149. doi:10.1177/0956797610376073
McGraw, A. P., Warren, C., Williams, L., & Leonard, B. (2012). Too Close for Comfort, or too Far to Care? Finding Humor in Distant Tragedies and Close Mishaps. Psychological Science, 23(10), 1215–1223. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797612443831
McGraw, A. P., Williams, L. E., & Warren, C. (2013). The Rise and Fall of Humor. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5(5), 566-572. doi:10.1177/1948550613515006
Menninghaus, W., Wagner, V., Hanich, J., Wassiliwizky, E., Jacobsen, T., & Koelsch, S. (2017). The Distancing-Embracing model of the enjoyment of negative emotions in art reception. Behav Brain Sci, 40, e347. doi:10.1017/S0140525X17000309
Menninghaus, W., Wagner, V., Hanich, J., Wassiliwizky, E., Kuehnast, M., & Jacobsen, T. (2015). Towards a Psychological Construct of Being Moved. PLOS ONE, 10(6), e0128451. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0128451
Musch, J., & Klauer, K. C. (2003). The psychology of evaluation: Affective processes in cognition and emotion. Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Nakamura, K., Kawashima, R., Nagumo, S., Ito, K., Sugiura, M., Kato, T., . . . Kojima, S. (1998). Neuroanatomical correlates of the assessment of facial attractiveness. Neuroreport, 9(4), 753-757. doi:10.1097/00001756-199803090-00035
O’Doherty, J. P., Winston, J., Critchley, H., Perrett, D. I., Burt, D. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Beauty in a smile: the role of medial orbitofrontal cortex in facial attractiveness. Neuropsychologia, 41(2), 147-155. doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00145-8
Oceja, L., & Carrera, P. (2009). Beyond a Single Pattern of Mixed Emotional Experience. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 25, 58-67. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.25.1.58
Pandit, S. (1976). IN DEFENCE OF PSYCHICAL DISTANCE. The British Journal of Aesthetics, 16(1), 56-60. doi:10.1093/bjaesthetics/16.1.56
Pelowski, M., Markey, P. S., Forster, M., Gerger, G., & Leder, H. (2017). Move me, astonish me... delight my eyes and brain: The Vienna Integrated Model of top-down and bottom-up processes in Art Perception (VIMAP) and corresponding affective, evaluative, and neurophysiological correlates. Phys Life Rev, 21, 80-125. doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2017.02.003
Price, K. (1977). The truth about psychical distance. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 35 (4), 411-423.
Rüger, C., Rode, M., & Döll-Hentschker, S. (2011). Emotional Heterogeneity and Emotional Negativity in Everyday-Life and Dream Narratives.
Rafaeli, E., Rogers, G., & Revelle, W. (2007). Affective Synchrony: Individual Differences in Mixed Emotions. Personality & social psychology bulletin, 33, 915-932. doi:10.1177/0146167207301009
Ready, R. E., Carvalho, J. O., & Weinberger, M. I. (2008). Emotional complexity in younger, midlife, and older adults. Psychology and aging, 23(4), 928-933. doi:10.1037/a0014003
Reber, R., Schwarz, N., & Winkielman, P. (2004). Processing Fluency and Aesthetic Pleasure: Is Beauty in the Perceiver's Processing Experience? Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 8, 364-382. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3
Reber, R., Winkielman, P., & Schwarz, N. (1998). Effects of Perceptual Fluency on Affective Judgments. Psychological Science, 9(1), 45-48. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00008
Riediger, M., Schmiedek, F., Wagner, G. G., & Lindenberger, U. (2009). Seeking pleasure and seeking pain: differences in prohedonic and contra-hedonic motivation from adolescence to old age. Psychol Sci, 20(12), 1529-1535. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02473.x
Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. (2001). Negativity Bias, Negativity Dominance, and Contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(4), 296-320. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0504_2
Scherer, K. (2013). Emotion in Action, Interaction, Music, and Speech. Language, Music, and the Brain: A Mysterious Relationship, 107-139. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262018104.003.0005
Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695-729. doi:10.1177/0539018405058216
Schimmack, U. (2001). Pleasure, displeasure, and mixed feelings: Are semantic opposites mutually exclusive? Cognition, 15, 81. doi:10.1080/0269993004200123
Silvia, P. (2009). Looking Past Pleasure: Anger, Confusion, Disgust, Pride, Surprise, and Other Unusual Aesthetic Emotions. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 3, 48-51. doi:10.1037/a0014632
Sugiyama, M. S. (2005). Reverse-engineering narrative: Evidence of special design. 177-196.
Tan, E. S.-H. (2008). Entertainment is Emotion: The Functional Architecture of the Entertainment Experience. Media Psychology, 11(1), 28-51. doi:10.1080/15213260701853161
Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological review, 117(2), 440-463. doi:10.1037/a0018963
Trope, Y., Liberman, N., & Wakslak, C. (2007). Construal Levels and Psychological Distance: Effects on Representation, Prediction, Evaluation, and Behavior. J Consum Psychol, 17(2), 83-95. doi:10.1016/s1057-7408(07)70013-x
Vaish, A., Grossmann, T., & Woodward, A. (2008). Not all emotions are created equal: the negativity bias in social-emotional development. Psychological bulletin, 134(3), 383-403. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.383
Wagner, V., Klein, J., Hanich, J., Shah, M., Menninghaus, W., & Jacobsen, T. (2016). Anger framed: A field study on emotion, pleasure, and art. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 10(2), 134-146. doi:10.1037/aca0000029
Wagner, V., Menninghaus, W., Hanich, J., & Jacobsen, T. (2014). Art schema effects on affective experience: The case of disgusting images. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 8(2), 120-129. doi:10.1037/a0036126
Wandell, B., Dumoulin, S. O., & Brewer, A. A. (2009). Visual cortex in humans. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, 10, 251-257.
Winston, J. S., O’Doherty, J., Kilner, J. M., Perrett, D. I., & Dolan, R. J. (2007). Brain systems for assessing facial attractiveness. Neuropsychologia, 45(1), 195-206. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.05.009
Wolf, K., Mass, R., Ingenbleek, T., Kiefer, F., Naber, D., & Wiedemann, K. (2005). The facial pattern of disgust, appetence, excited joy and relaxed joy: An improved facial EMG study. Scandinavian journal of psychology, 46, 403-409. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2005.00471.x
Zwaan, R. A. (1999). Situation Models: The Mental Leap Into Imagined Worlds. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(1), 15-18. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00004