近期的醫學研究指出，過去幾十年來由於缺乏治療及全球人口持續增加，盲人總數有緩慢且穩定成長的趨勢。而目前台灣有多於五萬五千的人口患有嚴重的視覺障礙，然而處在一個具有大量視覺刺激及視覺影像輸入的環境中，這些人必須依靠其他感官來取代視覺，惟在涉及空間資訊與地圖展示時，資訊的傳播及溝通往往效果不彰。輔助科技如手杖抑或是一套電腦系統皆能夠幫助身障人士生活更加便利以及發揮各項機能的潛力，然此服務卻經常因為關乎少數人利益而被忽視。
隨著1980年代中後期立體光刻技術的出現，加上近年來3D列印機的價格逐漸下降，以3D列印技術製作觸覺地圖被認為能夠更好地滿足視覺障礙者的需求。然而儘管具備列印技術，過去的觸覺地圖卻因為不重視地圖製作之原理而經常無法達到所需，反而將重點放在地圖幾何（位置）而非地圖語意的再現（內容）。
結合3D列印技術低成本及高品質輸出的特性，產出的觸覺地圖可以擁有更豐富的語義及較佳的實用性，另外觸覺地圖有利於三維資訊的呈現，對於諸如形狀、紋理等變量有更大的製圖自由度。本研究將利用該技術，並結合視障者的反饋，發展出一可行的基本製圖概念雛形，並希望能藉此建立以教育為最終目的並作為輔助科技之主題地圖。
本研究以都市為製圖標的，以開源資料如開放街圖、政府開放資料作為主題地圖之題材，測試該類型主題性觸覺地圖之可行性，然3D列印限制了地圖大小亦限制了地圖尺度與點字註記的空間，發展出具易讀性與豐富性之觸覺內容需要與視障者不斷溝通與確認，此研究所涵蓋之模型概念建立了製圖者與視障者之間的溝通橋梁，並提供了可透過3D列印或其他技術所實現之具高自由度的觸覺地圖模型架構。

Due to the overall increasing world population and lack of treatment, the share of people in this world with severe vision-impairment has remained stably growing over the last decades. In Taiwan, more than 55,000 people live with severe vision-impairment. In a world that is extremely focused on visual input and stimulation, people with severe vision impairment have to substitute vision by other sensory organs which does not work very well in communication particularly when it comes to spatial information and maps as a form of representation. Assistive technology is used to improve the functional capabilities of the disabilities through any realization of aids, such as computer programs, products, and equipment. Unfortunately, this kind of service is still lacking because of minority interests.
With the advent of stereolithography in the mid-1980s, this problem appeared to become solvable, but only with the arrival of affordable 3D printers in recent years better approaches to produce tactile maps and to accommodate needs of the visually impaired community seemed to be within reach. However, the printing outputs are often lacking the required quality, and the underlying cartographic concept was often highly reduced as the focus was put on the reproduction of map geometry (where), rather than map semantics (what).
With the availability of higher-quality and low-cost printing, the potential for producing usable and semantically richer tactile maps has considerably increased. Tactile maps benefit from their three-dimensional representation and an increased level of freedom with respect to variables such as shape and texture. This research focuses on developing such an underlying cartographic concept with feedback from the community, and aims at implementing a prototype that allows to create complex thematic maps focusing on an educational topic as assistive technology.
In this research, open data such as OpenStreetMap and open government data has been extracted as topics of thematic maps focusing on urban areas in order to investigate the feasibility of 3D thematic tactile maps. However, this research is constrained by the printing limitations on map size and map scale. Iterative communications with visually impaired people can help develop a readable map with greatest information. This research acts as the bridge between cartographers and people with vision impairments by providing a conceptual model of thematic tactile maps which is proved feasible to be implemented by 3D printing.

謝誌 I
摘要 III
Abstract V
Figures IX
Tables XIII
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1.1 General Background and Motivation 1
1.2 Purpose of Research 6
1.3 Research Structure and Conceptual Framework 7
Chapter 2. Literature Review 9
2.1 Communication System in Vision Impaired People 9
2.1.1 Tactile graphics 9
2.1.2 Development of braille system 14
2.2 Development in Tactile Mapping 18
2.2.1 Cognitive mapping without sight 18
2.2.2 Standards on tactile map design 19
2.2.3 Production technology for tactile maps 23
2.2.4 3D tactile maps 25
Chapter 3. Research Methodology and Theoretical Basis 29
3.1 Research Workflow 29
3.2 Data Resources and Research Devices 31
3.2.1 Research data 31
3.2.2 Research techniques and devices 34
3.3 Research Approach 39
Chapter 4. Result and Discussion 57
4.1 Prototype Demonstration 57
4.2 Map Assessment and Evaluation from the Community 63
4.3 Discussion 68
Chapter 5. Conclusion and Recommendation 71
5.1 Conclusion 71
5.2 Recommendation 72
References 73

i. Chinese references
Chang, C.L. & Chang, J.L., 2005, Using the Principles of Cartographic Symbolization to Evaluate Web Maps (利用地圖符號化原則評估網路地圖), JOURNAL OF TAIWAN GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE, 3: 1-13.
Chi, C.A., 1999, “A Study on Graphical Cognitive Ability of Visually Impaired Students (視覺障礙學生圖形認知能力之研究)”, Journal of Special Education, 17: 139-162.
Chi, C.A., 2015, Work Manual for Beginning Teachers of Visually Impaired Education (初任視障教育教師工作手冊), Taipei: Department of Special Education, National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU).
He, J.L., 2017, A Study on Designing a Tactile Symbol System for Guiding Students with Visual and Multiple Impairments: A Case of Huei-Ming School for the Blind in Taichung, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, National Taichung University of Education, Taichung.
Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2018, Report of Disabled People’s Living Condition and Demand Survey 2016 (105年身心障礙者 生活狀況及需求調查報告), R.O.C.(Taiwan).
ii. English references
American Printing House for the Blind, Inc., 2008, Guide to designing tactile illustrations for children’s books, Kentucky: Louisville.
ASTM International, 2012, “ASTM F2792-12, Standard terminology for additive manufacturing technologies”, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
Attard J., Orlandi, F., Scerri, S., and Auer, S., 2015, “A systematic review of open government data initiatives.” Government Information Quarterly, 32(4): 399–418.
Berman, B., 2012, “3-D printing: The new industrial revolution.”, Business Horizons, 55(2): 155-162.
Bertin, J., 1983, Semiology of Graphics, diagrams, network, maps (translated from Sémiologie graphique, 1967), Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 415pp.
Bertolotto, M., McArdle, G., and Schoen-Phelan, B., 2020, “Volunteered and crowdsourced geographic information: the OpenStreetMap project”, JOURNAL OF SPATIAL INFORMATION SCIENCE, 20: 65-70.
Blades, M., Ungar, S. and Spencer, C., 2000, “Map use by adults with visual impairments.”, Professional Geographer, 51: 539–53.
Bourne, R., Flaxman, S., R., Braithwaite, T., Cicinelli, M., V., Das, A., Jonas, J., B., Keeffe, J., Kempen, J., H., Leasher, J., Limburg, H., Naidoo, K., Pesudovs, K., Resnikoff, S., Silvester, A., Stevens, G., A., Tahhan, N., Wong, T., Y., Taylor, H., R., and Vision Loss Expert Group, 2017, “Magnitude, temporal trends, and projections of the global prevalence of blindness and distance and near vision impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” The Lancet. Global health, 5(9): 888–897.
Bringhammar, C., Jansson, G. and Douglas, G., 1997, The usefulness of a tactile map before and during travel without sight. Birmingham: Research Centre for the Education of the Visually Handicapped, University of Birmingham.
Chiang, P., P., O’Connor, P., M., Le Mesurier, R., T., Keeffe, J., E., 2011, “A global survey of low vision service provision.” Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 18(3):109–121.
Coulson, M., R., 1991, “Tactile-map output from geographical information systems: The challenge and its importance”, International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 5(3): 353–60.
Dawes, S., S., andd Helbig, N., 2010, “Information strategies for open government: Challenges and prospects for deriving public value from government transparency” pp. 50-60 in International Conference on Electronic Government. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
Dent, B., D., 1993, Cartography Thematic Map Design, Oxford: Wm C. Brown Publishers, 427pp.
Downs, R., M., and Stea, D., 1973, Image & environment: Cognitive mapping and spatial behavior. New Jersey: AldineTransaction.
Edman, P., K., 1992, Tactile graphics. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
Espinosa, M., Ungar, S., Ochaita, E., Blades, M., and Spencer, C., 1998, “Comparing methods for introducing blind and visually impaired people to unfamiliar urban environments.” Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18: 277–287.
Gärling, T., and Golledge, R., G., 1993, Behavior and environment: Psychological and geographical approaches. North-Holland.
Gill, J., 2003, “Technological developments for blind people”, British Journal of Healthcare Computing and Information Management, 20(9): 24-27.
Gill, J., M., and Clark, L., L., 1978, “Resources for Creating Tactual Graphics”, Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 72(1): 32–33.
Giudice, N., A., Guenther, B., A., Jensen, N., A., and Haase, K., N., 2020, “Cognitive Mapping Without Vision: Comparing Wayfinding Performance After Learning from Digital Touchscreen-Based Multimodal Maps vs. Embossed Tactile Overlays.”, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14:87. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00087
Golledge, R., G., 1999, Wayfinding Behavior: Cognitive Mapping and Other Spatial Processes. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Goodchild, M., F., 2007, “Citizens as sensors: the world of volunteered geography”, GeoJournal, 69(4): 211-221.
Gotzelmann, T. and Pavkovic, A., 2014. “Towards automatically generated tactile detail maps by 3d printers for blind persons.” pp. 1-7 in Computers helping people with special needs. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
Giraud, S., Brock, A., M., Macé MJ-Mand, and Jouffrais, C., 2017. “Map Learning with a 3D Printed Interactive Small-Scale Model: Improvement of Space and Text Memorization in Visually Impaired Students.”, Frontiers in Psychology, 8(930).
Hafner, V., V., 2000, “Explaining Wayfinding Behaviour and Cognitive Mapping.”, Psycoloquy, 11(60):3-11.
Haklay, M. and Weber, P., 2008, “OpenStreetMap: User-Generated Street Maps. Pervasive Computing”, IEEE Pervasive Computing,7(4): 12-18.
Holden, B., A., Fricke, T., R., Wilson, D., A., Jong, M., Naidoo, K., S., Sankaridurg, P., Wong, T., Y., Naduvilath, T., J., and Resnikoff, S., 2016, “Global Prevalence of Myopia and High Myopia and Temporal Trends from 2000 through 2050.” Ophthalmology, 123(5): 1036-42.
Hsu, M., L., 1979, “The cartographers conceptual process and thematic symbolization”, The American Cartographer, 6(2): 117-127.
Jacobson, R., D., 1998, “Navigating maps with little or no sight: An audio-tactile approach.” in Proceedings of the CVIR 1998 Workshop on Content Visualization and Intermedia Representations, Montreal: Association for Computational Linguistics.
Jones, M., G., and Broadwell, B., 2008, “Visualizing without vision.” pp. 283-294 in Visualization: Theory and practice in science education. edited by Gilbert, J., Nakhleh, M., and Reiner, M., Heidelberg: Springer.
Kraak, M., J., 2001, “Cartographic Principles” pp. 59-65 in Web Cartography: Developments and Prospects, edited by Kraak, M., J., and Brown, A., London: Taylor and Francis.
Langelaan, M., de Boer, M., R., van Nispen, R., M., A., Wouters, B., Moll, A.C., van Rens, G., 2007, “Impact of visual impairment on quality of life: a comparison with quality of life in the general population and with other chronic conditions.” Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 14:119–126.
Lobben, A., and Lawrence, M., 2012, “The use of environmental features on tactile maps by navigators who are blind.” The Professional Geographer, 64(1): 95–108.
Low, Z., Chua, Y., T., Ray, B., M., Mattia, D., Metcalfe, I., S., and Patterson, D., A., 2017, “Perspective on 3D printing of separation membranes and comparison to related unconventional fabrication techniques.” Journal of Membrane Science, 523(1): 596-613.
Luo, S., Bimbo, J., Dahiya, R., and Liu, H., 2017, “Robotic tactile perception of object properties: A review.” Mechatronics, 48: 54–67.
Maingreaud, F., Pissaloux, E., E., Velázquez, R., Gaunet, F., Hafez, M., and Alexandre, J. M. ,2005, “A dynamic tactile map as a tool for space organization perception: Application to the design of an electronic travel aid for visually impaired and blind people.” pp. 6912–6915 in Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology - Proceedings (Vol. 7 VOLS). New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc.
Medvedev, A., 2019, “Tactile thematic maps for the territory of Russia: multivariate representation of geographic information”, 29th International Cartographic Conference, 1: 243
Miele, J., and Marston, J., 2005, Tactile Map Automated Production (TMAP): On-demand accessible street maps for blind and visually impaired travelers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of American Geographers,Denver, CO.
Millar, S., 1994, Understanding and representing space: theory and evidence from studies with blind and sighted children, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mohamed, M., G., A., Kumar, H., Wang, Z., Martin, N., Mills, B., and Kim, K., 2019, “Rapid and Inexpensive Fabrication of Multi-Depth Microfluidic Device using High-Resolution LCD Stereolithographic 3D Printing”, Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 3(26)
Mooney, P., and Morley, J., 2014, “Crowdsourcing in national mapping.” Official Publication - EuroSDR, 64: 147-166.
Mukhiddinov, M., and Kim, S., Y., 2021, “A Systematic Literature Review on the Automatic Creation of Tactile Graphics for the Blind and Visually Impaired”, Processes, 9(10): 1726.
Nagel, D., L., D., and Coulson, M., R., C., 1990, “Tactual mobility maps: a comparative study”, Cartographica, 27: 47–63.
Oh, C., Park, J., Choi, J., 2015, “A Study on Tactile map design for blind people in Korea”, 27th International Cartographic Conference, 16th General Assembly.
Olczyk, M., 2014, “The rules of developing tactile maps for blind and visually impaired”, Polish Cartographical Review, 46(4): 413–442.
Perkins, C., 2001, “Tactile campus mapping: Evaluating designs and production technologies.” pp. 2906-2913 in Proceedings of the 20th International Cartographic Conference, edited by Scientific and Technical Program Committee, Beijing: The Society.
Perkins, C., 2002, “Cartography: progress in tactile mapping”, Progress in Human Geography, 26(4): 521-530.
Rener, R., 2017, “The 3D Printing of Tactile Maps for Persons with Visual Impairment.” pp. 335-350 in: UAHCI 2017, Part II, LNCS 10278, edited by Antona, M. and Stephanidis, C., Heidelberg: Springer.
Robinson, A., H., Morrison, J., L., Muehrcke, P., C., Kimerling, A., J., and Guptill, S., C., 1995, Elements of Cartography, 6th ed., Chichester: Wiley, 674pp.
Rosenblum, L., P., and Herzberg, T., S., 2015, “Braille and Tactile Graphics: Youths with Visual Impairments Share Their Experiences.” Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 109(3):173–184.
Rowell, J. and Ungar, S., 2003, “The world of touch: an international survey of tactile maps.” Part 2: Design. British Journal of Visual Impairment. 21(3): 105-110.
Ruijer, E., Grimmelikhuijsen, S., van den Berg, J., and Meijer, A., 2020, “Open data work: understanding open data usage from a practice lens”, International Review of Administrative Sciences, 86(1): 3–19.
Shahrubudin, N., Lee, T., C., and Ramlan, R., 2019, “An Overview on 3D Printing Technology: Technological, Materials, and Applications”, Procedia Manufacturing, 35: 1286-1296.
Sheppard, L., and Aldrich, F., K., 2001, “Tactile graphics in school education: Perspectives from teachers”, Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 19(3): 93–97.
Syed, A., M., T., Elias, P., K., Amit, B., Susmita, B., Lisa, O., and Charitidis, C., 2017, “Additive manufacturing: scientific and technological challenges, market uptake and opportunities”, Materials today, 1:1-16.
Tatham, A., F., 1999, “Tactile map design using found materials”, pp. 453-458 in Proceedings of 19th ICA/ACI International Cartographic Conference.
Tatham, A.F., 1991, “The design of tactile maps: theoretical and practical considerations”, pp. 157–66 in Mapping the Nations: Proceedings of 15th ICA Conference, Dorset: Bournemouth.
Taylor, B., Dey, A., Siewiorek, D., and Smailagic, A., 2016, “Customizable 3D Printed Tactile Maps as Interactive Overlays.” pp. 71-79 in Proceedings of the 18th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility - ASSETS ’16, New York: Association for Computing Machinery
The Braille Authority of North America (BANA) & Canadian Braille Authority (CBA), 2010, Guidelines and Standards for Tactile Graphics, North America: BANA.
Ungar, S., Blades, M., Spencer, C., and Morsley, K., 1994, “Can visually impaired children use tactile maps to estimate directions?”, Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 88: 221–33.
Ungar. S., 2000, “Cognitive mapping without visual experience”, pp. 221–48 in Cognitive mapping past, present and future, edited by Kitchin, R., M., and Freundschuh, S., London: Routledge.
Ungar. S.,1995, “Visually impaired children’s strategies for memorising a map”, British Journal of Visual Impairment, 13: 27–32.
Ungar. S.,1996, “The ability of visually impaired children to locate themselves on a tactile map”, Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 90: 526–35.
Voigt, A., Martens, B., 2006, “Development of 3D tactile models for the partially sighted to facilitate spatial orientation.” pp. 366–370 in Proceedings of the 24th Conference on Education and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe, edited by Bourdakis, V., Charitos, D., Greece: Volos Univ. of Thessaly, School of Engineering.
Wiedel, J., W., 1983, International Symposium on Maps and Graphics for the Visually Handicapped, The Professional Geographer, 35(3): 354.
World Health Organization, 2019, “World report on vision.” xvi+162pp., Geneva: Switzerland (WHO).
Zebehazy, K., T., and Wilton, A., P., 2014, “Charting Success: The Experience of Teachers of Students with Visual Impairments in Promoting Student Use of Graphics.” Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 108(4): 263–274.
Zebehazy, K., T., Wilton, A., P., 2014, “Quality, importance, and instruction: The perspectives of teachers of students with visual impairments on graphics use by students.” Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 108: 5–16.
iii. Website
3Ders.org. Price Compare 3D Printers. Retrieved November 30, 2021 from 3Ders.org. on the World Wide Web: http://www.3ders.org/pricecompare/3dprinters/
American Foundation for the Blind (2012) Braille Printers. Retrieved November 30, 2021 from American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) on the World Wide Web: https://www.afb.org/blindness-and-low-vision/using-technology/assistive-technology-products/braille-printers
American Thermoform (2021) Braille Paper - Cut Sheet. Retrieved November 30, 2021 from American Thermoform on the World Wide Web: www.americanthermoform.com
Amick, N., Corcoran, J., 1997, Guidelines for Design of Tactile Graphics. Retrieved October 20, 2021 from American Printing House for the Blind (APH) on the World Wide Web: http://faculty.sfasu.edu/cadyd/indexpagextra/Science.Math/tactile.graphics.docx
Assistive Technology Industry Association (2022) What is AT? Retrieved June 30, 2022 from Assistive Technology Industry Association (ATilA) on the World Wide Web: https://www.atia.org/
Britannica, T. (2021, September 22). Braille. Retrieved November 3, 2021 from Encyclopedia Britannica on the World Wide Web: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Braille-writing-system
Cushman,C. (2014, June 25) In Praise of the Slate and Stylus. Retrieved November 13, 2021 from PATHS TO LITERACY on the World Wide Web: https://www.pathstoliteracy.org/resources/praise-slate-and-stylus
Cushman,C. (2017, Mar 02) Overview of Braille. Retrieved November 3, 2021 from PATHS TO LITERACY on the World Wide Web: https://www.pathstoliteracy.org/overview-braille
Enyart, S. (2021) What Is Braille? Retrieved November 1, 2021 from American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) on the World Wide Web: https://www.afb.org/blindness-and-low-vision/braille/what-braille
Institute for the Blind of Taiwan (財團法人台灣盲人重建院) (2021) The history of braille (點字的發展歷史). Retrieved November 5, 2021 from Institute for the Blind of Taiwan on the World Wide Web: http://www.ibt.org.tw/RWD01/OnePage.aspx?tid=111
Lulu-Ann, Bahnpirat (2009) HaptoRender. Retrieved November 31, 2021 from OpenStreetMap Wiki on the World Wide Web: https://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/HaptoRender
OpenSCAD.– Internet: https://openscad.org/ (date visited: May, 1, 2022).
OpenStreetMap.– Internet: https://www.openstreetmap.org/ (date visited: August, 1, 2021).
Taiwan Foundation for the Blind (財團法人愛盲基金會) (2019) Comparison table of braille symbols (愛盲點字對照表). Retrieved December 10, 2021 from Taiwan Foundation for the Blind on the World Wide Web: https://www.tfb.org.tw/web/index/index.jsp
Touch Mapper.– Internet: https://touch-mapper.org/ (date visited: October, 1, 2021)
UK Association for Accessible Formats (UKAAF), 2017, “Standard dimensions for the UK Braille Cell”, https://www.ukaaf.org/wp-content/uploads/BrailleStandardDimensionsFinal.pdf (date visited: November 1, 2021).