唐宋之間的國家與祠祀――兼論祠祀的「中心化」

The State and Cisi Between Tang and Song: A History of Cisi Focalization

楊俊峰(Jun-feng Yang)

指導教授 ： 陳弱水

國立臺灣大學/文學院/歷史學研究所/博士(2009年)

https://doi.org/10.6342/NTU.2009.10253

摘要

中國歷史上國家權力與祠祀信仰的關係，一直是祠祀研究的焦點，但是這種關係的真正確立，應該被視為歷史發展的過程，而不是討論國家祠祀措施的前提。本論文從動態的歷史發展過程，梳理唐宋之間國家對祠祀作為和態度的根本變化，以究明地方祠祀如何走進統治視野的歷史；另一方面，亦試圖論證國家大幅介入地方祠祀後，反而受其牽引，日益重視祠祀在政治行動中可能發揮的作用，並促使祠祀走進政治意識的中心。
首先，本論文的研究顯示，唐宋之間國家關注祠祀信仰的作為，是逐步發展的歷史過程。唐代國家和各地祠祀的常態關係，原本是由地方官府祠祀活動的慣習所維繫，然而，唐宋之間兩者的關係出現重大的轉變，國家開始大幅涉入各地的祠祀信仰。本論文採取跨代的研究取徑，本於這場變化即是發生於跨代之間的歷史現象，而且促成變化的歷史動力，亦源於唐宋之間國家組成形態及其實質內涵的重大變化。
對唐宋兩代國家建立地方祠祀的規範，本論文重視國家統治南方視野發生改變後所造成的影響。筆者認為，南方在帝國內部的地位大幅提高之後，宋廷始能於正面處理南方祀神之風的過程中，建立相關的制度規範。這段歷史也說明朝廷直接處理各地祠祀信仰的問題，對建立相關的制度規範是很重要的。只有從宋廷指揮處分地方施政的歷史背景下，才能了解唐宋兩代之間，國家為何開始擺脫禮經立祀原則的束縛，針對常民的祠祀信仰活動，建立具體的制度規範。
進而言之，唐宋之間國家祠祀措施的變化，不限於管制祠祀信仰的作為，而是國家開始大幅關注祠祀信仰的整體表現。此時，國家透過封賜措施和各地祠祀信仰建立直接的聯繫，就是明顯的例證。唐宋時期封賜措施的發展，是一段比較曲折的歷史，必須以跨代的眼光，從動態的歷史進程重新加以認識。唐宋時期封神措施的發展，最初肇端於盛唐，於五代時期南方地方王國的手中確立，宋初曾一度受到新朝廷的忽視，一直到北宋中期，在南方官僚集團崛起之後，此一地域傳統才開始牽引朝廷改採積極封神的措施。
這段唐宋封神措施的發展史，很難只歸諸於宋代積極建立正祀依據的結果，封神措施的擴大，係隨著國家形態和實質內涵發生變化，自然推移演變的發展結果。筆者欲闡明兼具地方與國家雙重性格的南方王國，對推動大量的封賜措施扮演關鍵的角色。而且，只有到了北宋中期，南方官僚集團主宰統一帝國之後，這項原本帶有南方地域傳統的措施，才有可能推衍為全國性的制度。
其次，唐宋之間國家與祠祀的關係，涉及祠祀走向「中心化」更為根本的變化。宋代朝廷和士大夫官僚操作祠祀的作為，涉及心態上比較深刻的改變，他們已經開始將祠祀視為政治行動的元素，積極操作祠祀，以表彰人物典範或宣揚核心的政治價值。此時開始出現大量的賢人祠和旌忠廟，反映了國家與祠祀關係新的歷史趨向。祠祀走向政治意識的中心，宋代的變化只是一個開端，後來成為近世時期政治社會史的一大特徵。
上述唐末至兩宋之際國家與祠祀關係的重大變化，涉及祠祀「中心化」更深刻的歷史變化，或可為唐宋變革期勾勒出一幅鮮為人注意，卻值得重視的歷史圖景。進一步而言，這場重大的歷史變化，對認識宋世以降國家與祠祀的關係，具有關鍵性的地位。經過這場變化的洗禮，近世時期祠祀信仰已經成為政治關懷的議題之一，祠祀進而成為政治文化的基本元素。
唐宋之間國家與祠祀關係「中心化」的變化，不是孤立的歷史現象，事實上，它和此時南方力量的崛起有很大的關係。本論文未直接討論南方的崛起對國家祠祀措施產生重大轉變的影響，但是各章具體的研究，觸及不少的南方因素。第二章指出原生於南方的城隍信仰，已成為中唐以後各地官府重要的祈祭對象；三至五章的討論則指出，南方力量的崛起對唐宋之間國家祠祀措施的變化，發生很大的影響。一方面，南方的好祀風俗刺激宋廷建立常民祠祀活動的制度規範；另一方面，五代南方王國所建立的封神傳統，到了北宋中期以後，又憑藉當地官僚集團的崛起，牽引朝廷改採積極封神的措施，並引發官方採取以祠祀旌賢、勸忠的新變化。
本論文探討唐宋之間祠祀走向「中心化」的變化，對認識國家與祠祀信仰的關係，可以帶來不同的思考角度。首先，唐宋之間國家大幅涉入祠祀信仰的變化，最初往往是國家介入地方施政的表現，或是試圖以祠祀信仰涉入基層社會的結果，並非自始即明確具有管制祠祀信仰的用意。本論文試圖說明，國家對待這些分散各地的祠祀信仰，最初並沒有一個整體性的政策，這些作為往往發端於國家處理個別（地區）信仰的行動。國家只有在大量指揮處分地方施政，或是欲以封神措施建立和基層社會的聯繫，才會開始正視祠祀信仰的存在。這段國家逐步關注祠祀信仰的歷史，是國家不斷介入地方（社會）的產物，此時國家對祠祀信仰的作為，往往是經過長期的蘊釀才發展出來的。
宋世以降賢人祠與旌忠廟的大量出現，代表國家有意以祠祀在地方社會操作政治的新變化。然而，只有在國家介入地方社會，進而關注祠祀信仰的問題此一思路下，才能理解為何國家大幅介入祠祀信仰後，也開始受到牽引，以祠祀在基層社會積極的操作政治行動。
其次，這段國家與祠祀信仰關係的歷史，對大傳統與「民間信仰」之間的關係，可能帶來不同的認識。宋世以下，國家欲利用祠祀擴大在基層社會意識形態領域的操控，是相當醒目的歷史變化，本論文的研究顯示，祠祀的政治作用日益受到重視，甚至成為宋世以降政治文化的基本元素之一，背後代表的不只是統治階層更細緻的向下教化的努力。國家透過祠祀深入地方的教化活動，亦說明國家日益捲入地方祠祀的過程中，也認識到祠祀信仰在地方社會可能發揮的政治作用。宋世以降，祠祀走入政治意識中心的轉變，不是偶然的歷史結果，只有當國家大幅涉入地方祠祀，對祠祀的態度和作為才會發生根本的改變。當然這也意味著地方祠祀對國家祠祀措施的一種反饋。因此，本論文抉發唐宋之間國家與祠祀信仰的關係，是一種互為影響的關係，祠祀最後成為宋世以下政治文化的基本元素，便是最好的例證。

關鍵字

國家 ； 祠祀 ； 封神 ； 中心化 ； 地方政府 ； 唐宋變革 ； 南方崛起

並列摘要

The study of the belief Cisi had usually focused on its relationship with the state power. Yet the relationship should not be seen as a given fact in the discussion of state measures on Cisi, but rather a dynamic process in history. Therefore, this thesis intends to display the fundamental change in the state conduct and attitude toward the belief Cisi between Tang and Song, and to work out how it had finally come into the agenda of the central government. In addition, it tries to prove that the state, after involvement with the belief Cisi, had begun to realize and highlight its political effect, taking Cisi into the center of political awareness.
First, the thesis argues that the state attention on the belief Cisi between Tang and Song was developed historically. In Tang Dynasty, the convention of Cisi activities held by local government had originally dominated and sustained its ordinary interaction with the state. However, till Song, this mode had gone through major transformation, in that the state began to involve with Cisi affairs. In this regard, the thesis adopted a trans-dynasty research approach and more importantly because during this period the state per se had experienced fundamental change in pattern and inner composition.
The formation of the state rules over the belief Cisi during Tang and Song, was due to changes in the governing of south areas in the empire. It is argued in this thesis that the rise of the south provided the necessary condition for the Song imperial court to cope directly with the folklores of sacrifice in the south, and finally form ad hoc rules. It also testified the importance of direct involvement of the authority into local Cisi to set up correlative rules. This background helps to explain why the state began to emancipate from the principles of The Rites, and set up clear-cut rules over the belief Cisi.
To go a step further, the change in state measures on the belief Cisi during Tang and Song can not only be understood in terms of supervision or control, but rather a holistic concern and maneuver. A case in point is the fact that during this period the state established immediate contact with those scattered beliefs via enfeoffment of the gods and the act of naming temples. The history of god enfeoffment is quite a devious one that requires a trans-dynasty perspective and dynamic examination. It first emerged in the heyday of Tang Dynasty, and was established locally by the Southern Kingdoms during the Five Dynasties. Though neglected by the new regime in the early times of Song, this local convention had finally found its way into the center of political culture in the middle of Northern Song Dynasty, thanks to the rise of official groups from the south.
It is hard to attribute this history of god enfeoffment to the Song central government’s plan to authorize Cisi operation, as generally accepted by the academia. Instead, it is more of a natural process changing along with the pattern and inner composition of the state. The thesis aims to clarify the critical role in the movement of god enfeoffment played by the Southern Kingdoms, characterizing both locality and nationality. In fact, only till the middle of Northern Song Dynasty could the south-born tradition be institutionalized and spread to the whole empire.
Second, the relationship between the state and Cisi during Tang and Song involved a change so profound that it can be described as the focalization of Cisi. The imperial court and bureaucrats in Song Dynasty changed their attitude and regard Cisi as an important element in political activities. They became keen on the maneuver of Cisi to honor eminent figures and advocate core political values. This new trend was symbolized by the mushrooming Xien-Ren Shrines (shrines to former worthies) and Jing-Zhong Shrines (shrines to loyalists) in this period. The change in Song was just a beginning. The aftermath of Cisi focalization had continued all through the ages, making it a major feature in the political-social history after Song Dynasty.
The big change in the relation of the state and Cisi described above in fact suggested a process of focalization, which might have givent a brand new view of Tang-Song Transformation. The change was critical in understanding the relationship between the state and Cisi, in that the latter had since then been listed into political agenda and become a basic element of the political culture.
The focalization of Cisi between Tang and Song did not come alone, but closely related to the rise of the south. The impact of southern force on the state measures over the belief Cisi was discussed in several chapters of the thesis. Chapter two points out that Chenghuang (the City God), originated in the south, had become a main sacrificial object at local governments in Mid-Tang. Chapter three to five proved that on one hand, the folklores of sacrifice in the south had led to rules over the religious activities of ordinary people by the Song authority; on the other, along with the rise of southern official groups in the mid of Northern Song, the tradition of god enfeoffment was increasingly adopted by the imperial court and brought out the new practice of honoring worthies and loyalist in the form of Cisi by the authority.
The focalization of Cisi during Tang and Song, as proposed in the thesis, brings a new sight to examine the relationship between the state and the belief Cisi. First, the central government’s involvement with Cisi belief during this period had usually begun as an attempt to intervene with local administration or society, noteworthily, without a clear aim to control it. The thesis tries to argue that the state, in the first place, had no holistic policy over these scattered beliefs around the country. On the contrary, dealing with individual cases of regional beliefs contributed to the development of national measures. In other words, only on the basis of accumulated experiences or upon the need to strengthen relationship with local society, could it be possible for the state to consider the belief Cisi seriously. In brief, the state concern and measures of the belief Cisi had in fact resulted from continuous intervention into local affairs and could only be formed over a long period of time.
Since Song times, large amount of Xien-Ren Shrines and Jing-Zhong Shrines appeared, symbolizing a new trend that the state manipulated Cisi to wield power over local politics. Yet this trend can only be interpreted as the result of the state attention to the belief Cisi due to its intervention into local society.
Second, the historical dynamics of their relationship might bring insights to the interaction between the great tradition and folk beliefs. Since the Song Dynasty, there was an obvious change that the state employed Cisi to consolidate its control over ideologies in local society. And it is suggested in the thesis that the rising importance of Cisi in the political sphere can not only be related to the authority’s indoctrination and moralizing effort, it also reflected the state awareness of the potential political function of Cisi in local society. In retrospect, the focalization of Cisi into poitical consciousness can be seen as the inevitable outcome of the state’s involvement. Of course, it might have been a response from these beliefs in local society to the state measures. Therefore, it couldbe concluded that the relation of the state and the belief Cisi during Tang and Song is an interacting one, which was well testified by Cisi as the basic element of political culture since Song Dynasty.

並列關鍵字

Nation ； Cisi ； God Enfeoffment ； Focalization ； Local Government ； Tang-Song Transformation ； the Rise of the South

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