六朝仙道身體觀與修行理論探討

An Analysis of Body Concepts and Skills for Achieving Immortals in Taoism During the Six Dynasties

張億平(Yih-Ping Chang)

指導教授 ： 張蓓蓓

國立臺灣大學/文學院/中國文學研究所/博士(2013年)

https://doi.org/10.6342/NTU.2013.02042

摘要

道教起於周代，戰國時已有科儀，漢時漸傳流布，興於漢末，六朝時盛行，乃是中國本土的宗教。修煉成仙乃是道教中實踐的核心。六朝處於上接秦漢道家、黃老，下開唐宋內丹學之承先啟後位置，當時又信仰勃興、流行朝野，道經紛出，三洞經系初步集結建立，其修仙理論可視為該時代道教內涵的一大範疇。六朝階段是道教內在修煉體系成為主流方式之肇端。六朝仙道在修煉成仙方面的理論繼承先秦以來的踐形傳統，努力拓展自身生命轉化的可能，一方面蒐羅先秦與漢代相關的鍛形、煉氣、養生等方術，一方面又參考虛心、守靜、存思、專一等工夫論，另外還根據自身修行的觀察與體悟，逐步發展出修煉成仙的理論。此一過渡階段既承接了道家、陰陽家、神仙家的思想以及修養工夫的傳統，並汲取醫家、養生方術對於生命、身體的觀點，轉化為具有理論又可以實踐的修行體系。

先秦以至六朝對於神仙之傳說與描繪，把神仙建構為美好的生命型態，形成神仙信仰，對照凡人於時空方面的限制與生活的痛苦、煩惱，成為人企求神仙、修煉成仙的動機。六朝修仙理論並非憑空杜撰，思想基礎必前有所承，以中國傳統文化為其背景：一、天地萬物共同遵循之律則，本文稱為天道論，其內涵為道的認識與掌握，析之而為陰陽原理、五行系統。二、討論氣如何作為天地萬物生化與互滲性質之根源，本文稱為氣化論。氣是建構仙道理論體系中最重要的基底概念，沒有氣便不足以解釋仙道信仰中的巫術邏輯。三、天地與人、萬物與人之間的關係，本文稱為天人論──涉及天人合一的理想，與天人相應的建立。除觀念背景之外，仙道以自力修行的模式來求仙，不只具有宗教上的意義，更因為中國傳統思想中本有以心領氣，修心以養氣、養氣以踐形的工夫論，建立了生命性德可以藉由身心修行來實踐的主觀根據。而且工夫論有虛靜以養氣的一路，排除感官認知，則氣與天地萬物之氣互滲流行；心歸於虛靜，無有雜訊與引誘，身體如能受納之容器，精氣自然進駐，不虞向外發散，此所以言精氣自來其身。影響後來的仙道修行理論之轉型。

先秦以來的神仙信仰，使人相信確有神仙，而且神仙可學。然則，修煉成仙涉及生命性質的轉化。首先，在神話傳說的信念與氣化論的邏輯下，萬物之物性可以變易。再者，人能否照一己之意志來變化？必須掌握變化的規律，因此煉丹術的原理及其中的工藝精神正是人參與造化的展現，而人體未嘗不可視為煉丹術中的爐鼎與丹藥，直接進行人體的轉化，一方面除去身體內外所有賊害生命、妨礙成仙的因素；另一方面積累精氣、存養精神，從量變臻於質變。復次，仙道修煉的前提在於道教貴生的生命觀，刻意忽略萬物循道其實有生有滅，強調大道生化之功，對於人的存有、生命的構成都給予極高的價值。在仙道思維中，死亡即是生命失了道、無法與道相守，因此身體的轉化目的就是要得道，與道相合乃能天人合一。轉化之方向可謂之「反」──一是反人事之常，以避免凡人戕性害命之弊病、遠離生死之過程；二是復反生命之初始，蓋道發生萬物，萬物之根源即是道，是以修行就是朝向歸根復命。後世內丹學在此基礎上提出「順則生人，逆則成仙」。實際修煉的原則則是奪盜。奪盜之詞於唐代道教乃使用，但六朝仙道修煉中已蘊含此一觀念，即取天地萬物之資源納於己身，助己身轉化。凡精氣能養形神者皆可納，凡方技有益於生者皆可採，凡神靈有助於修行者皆可存。可以說六朝仙道的修行邏輯都建立在奪盜的基本原理上。

仙道以成仙為目的，以修煉自身為主要方式，則一己之肉身生命必有成仙之潛力，然則對形成生命活動的身體構造應了解透徹。故六朝仙道討論身體於胚胎發育過程之發生與形成，特別著重氣化、形神合、神位布的部分，此關乎存思、行氣，以及逆反修煉的程序。將生來即稟賦的先天精氣稱為丹藥，意味著人身本由道或元氣而來，人人皆有成仙之可能。仙道也視一身為整體，其中各部分之體系如同職官分工合作，但更認為身中居住神靈，統領器官運作、守護生命，並與天上神靈同源而感通，蓋天人相應，人身便是宇宙之反映。仙道不甚在意身體中的氣血經脈，只專注修煉生來稟賦的精氣與神之運用；心志雖為內在修煉的操作主體，理論中也含有對自我意識之檢討；禁制魂魄則是道教對道德、戒律規範之心理詮釋。仙道對身體構造之關注，逐漸不以五臟作為人體中心，以腦、心、脾、丹田，貫串起人身的中軸來更易之。

六朝仙道修煉中常用的小術為漱嚥、叩齒、握固。辟穀與服食相對，服食是攝進藥物轉化身體，辟穀是排除對於修煉有害之飲食，反映了克制生理欲望。服氣有採納五方、日月星辰之精氣，常與存思相結合；有吐納行氣，借呼吸之動作以運轉體內精氣；有閉氣胎息，積存精氣以求復歸嬰兒之生命型態。存思在六朝仙道中最為看重之修煉法，會與其他修煉法、方術，甚至宗教有所關聯、交涉，延伸形成存思法多種樣貌之運用。存思是讓自身精神歸養不失，與心志相通相感，乃至與天地神靈相通相感，重新建構意識與身神、人身與天的連結。六朝仙道之守一或將一實體化，以存思來進行守一；或保留一作為道之象徵，主張以生活的態度或心靈的修養來進行守一，二者共通之處是都重視凝神專一與清靜寡欲。守一也可說是修煉不可或缺的原則或心理狀態。根據仙道身體觀：己身既是修煉之工具，也是修煉之對象，且是修煉之指引。內在修煉理路建立在「心與氣通、神與道通、人與天通」的邏輯上，打破了身內、身外，及個人、宇宙之界限分別。這樣的修煉理路在六朝仙道修煉法門中透顯出來，立足最為穩固、通說最為無礙，故六朝以下的仙道修煉理論自然漸以內修法門為大宗。

本文以具有代表性的主要修行理論與方術為例，嘗試解析蘊藏其中、支持仙道修煉可行可成的各種預設或信念，如修行原則、觀念前提、內在邏輯等，全面觀照又不失深入地呈顯構成六朝仙道信仰的豐富思想文化內涵。六朝仙道主要憑藉自力進行內在修煉，以求轉化生命性質，得道成仙，乃後世內丹學之前身。內丹學所注重之修行概念、所運用之修煉技巧，多已在六朝仙道中出現；內丹學可謂在六朝仙道豐富而紮實的成果上進一步演變、推進、拓展。

關鍵字

六朝 ； 道教 ； 修煉成仙 ； 身體觀 ； 修行理論 ； 精氣神 ； 天人相應

並列摘要

Taoism, the Chinese native religion, flourished during the Six Dynasties（六朝）and became popular not only in the royal family but also to the general public. Many Taoism scriptures we found today can be traced back to the Six Dynasties.

Being immortal（成仙）is the Taoist destination. The hardship in real life motivates the ancients to pursue the immortality in the eternal life. Since pre-Qin（先秦）, fairy tales and folk legends constantly depicted a life of immortality unfettered from the constraints of time and space; a life that is worry-free and suffering-free. They ultimately helped form the belief and motives of immortality in the Six Dynasties. People strived to transform as immortals in order to enjoy an eternal happy life.

The background in the Six Dynasties that succeeded by the Taoists to pursue immortal lives includes 1) the ideas of “Qi”（氣 as the origin & ingredients in creation, and vital energy of beings）, the theory of Chinese medicine, qigong or regimens, 2) the concepts of Yin-Yang and Five Elements (of metal, wood, water, fire, and earth) from Naturalists, and 3) the thoughts about corresponding, responding & interlinked, united between the Nature and the people（天人相應、天人合一）prevailed in Warring States（戰國 403-221 B.C.） and Han（漢 206 B.C. -220 A.D.）. The doctrine of achieving immortals with internal practice（內在修煉）, developing with time from the aforementioned background, became a major category of Taoism which inspired the Inner Alchemy（內丹學）in the generations to come in Tang & Song Dynasty（唐、宋）.

The Taoism believed natural character is changeable; everything could be converted into another. The humans got no exception and they must master the changes in the law of nature. The conversion to an immortal life could be learned through practice. Therefore, the Internal Practice and the Inner Alchemy could imitate the process of alchemy. The Taoist in the Six Dynasties regarded human’s body as a furnace（鼎爐） and innate essence（先天精氣）as materials for refining and purifying life quality. In order to achieve immortality, one must remove all detrimental factors and accumulate energy in the Nature.

Moreover, the Taoism believed that death is resulting from one’s losing Tao. The goal of body's metamorphosis was to attain the Tao（得道）. The direction of internal practice could be described as the "reverse"（反）process of losing Tao: first, to avoid being on the way to mortal life; second, to go back to the initial origin of life and the Nature. The principle of actual practice by Taoist was “taking” or “stealing”（奪、盜）. These two words “taking” and “stealing” were often used by Taoist until the Tang Dynasty, but the notion has been practiced for achieving immortality during the Six Dynasties. They mean that Taoist takes or steals all beneficial resources away from the Universe to satisfy the conditions of metamorphosis for immortality. All practices of Taoist in the Six Dynasties could be almost built on the basis of “taking” or “stealing”.

Taoist practices to achieve immortality by way of transforming his body that has immortal potential because the human body arises from Tao and originates from the Nature. Taoist has to know his own body well, understands how the embryo of human develops and what the body is made of flesh, mind and spirit. Taoist in the Six Dynasties adopted the theory of Chinese medicine, and then designed this typical body concepts（身體觀）on the purpose of corresponding with the skills for achieving immortals. This genetic and anatomic knowledge of Taoism was the key to the procedure for internal practice and the manipulation of body. The focus of the body structure was gradually shifted from five viscera system (of heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidneys) to the corporal central axis such as Niwan Palace（泥丸宮）at the brain, Crimson Palace（絳宮）at the heart , Yellow Court（黃庭）at the spleen or stomach, Navel Palace（臍宮）or Cinnabar Field（丹田）between kidneys. The body was viewed as a container for “Qi” in which blood, essence, spirit（神）, consciousness and soul （animus 魂, anima 魄） were always flowing. Taoist in the Six Dynasties believed that there were deities living in human body, too. These deities commanded the organs functioning and guarded the life against external evils. Besides, they were homologous with gods in heaven, and human body was just like a small universe. In a word, the human body is not only the practicing instruments, but also the object of the practice, and includes the guide to achieve immortal.

Here reviews the Taoist practice methods during the Six Dynasties: 1) Saliva swallow（漱嚥）, teeth knock（叩齒）and fists clench（握固）were the Taoist skills in common use from the Six Dynasties onwards. 2) To refrain from eating cereals（辟穀）in order to exclude harmful diet. The other way round, to ingest medicines（服食）was for the sake of renewing and transforming the body. 3) A Taoist could inhale the energies（服氣）sprung from five aspects（五方）, sun, moon and stars. One could also guide the inherent essence circulating from head to heel（行氣）through his breath; or he breathed then held the breath（閉氣）so that he absorbed energy from the universe and accrued the essence of body to return the original life. 4) Visualization（存思）is the most valuable way of internal practice during the Six Dynasties. Visualization is associated, and usually combined with other practice methods and even religions. If Taoist was able to meditate piously and deeply and to focus on thinking the deities in his body, the deities will keep staying in his own body and he will prevent disease and prolong life, even will communicate with the gods in heaven, invoke immortality of life. 5) Preserving the One（守一）could mean that a Taoist kept concentrating on one position in the body; otherwise that he lived and cultivated his body according to the law of Tao and discipline of Taoism. Preserving the One may be the indispensable principle or mental state when practicing.

Most of the practice concepts and skills to transform the body via Inner Alchemy have appeared and been used by Taoist in the Six Dynasties. I conclude that the mature Inner Alchemy in Tang & Song Dynasty would evolve from the rich theories of practice in Taoism during the Six Dynasties.

並列關鍵字

Six Dynasties ； Taoism ； immortality ； internal practice ； Inner Alchemy ； body concepts

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