晚清新式學堂制度之建立：日本影響因素分析

The Establishment of New School Systems in Late Qing Dynasty: An analysis of the Japanese Factors

王映文(Wang Ing-Wen)

指導教授 ： 周愚文

國立臺灣師範大學/教育學院/教育學系/碩士(2013年)

摘要

晚清的中國面對列強侵略的局面，以致清廷被迫從器物到制度思想都得進行改變，於是朝野都陷入不斷的新舊之爭。甲午戰敗後，清廷眼見日本明治維新以來三十餘年面對類似的環境卻有不同的發展，使得借鑑實施西方制度的日本經驗，成為清廷變法圖強的重要策略，其希望能夠在飽受挑戰的危局中，重新找回富國強兵之道。日本的成功經驗，讓清廷認識到國家的發展來自國民的生產力，國家的人力水準提升則依賴教育的建設，因此新式教育制度的引進，成為晚清新政的重要改革項目之一。
主導晚清新式學堂制度建立的張百熙與張之洞，一生仕途雖未離開國土，但從兩份學堂章程內容，可以明顯看見對西方學堂制度的模仿。探究二人認識西方的途徑，發現主要透過派遣官員赴日考察、閱讀翻譯之書籍、雜誌等途徑，經由對日本自明治維新以來教育改革經驗的模仿與改良，間接學習到西方學堂制度，並以其作為制定《欽定學堂章程》與《奏定學堂章程》的重要參考依據。
本研究透過文獻分析，分別探討由張百熙與張之洞委派赴日而完成的三份教育考察報告，包含姚錫光《東瀛學堂舉概》、羅振玉《扶桑兩月記》，以及吳汝綸《東遊叢錄》， 以及由羅振玉創辦，關切當時中國教育議題，頗具重要影響力的《教育世界》雜誌。透過對當時考察報告及《教育世界》的內容分析，期以瞭解晚清教育改革構想的參考依據。追索這些關鍵人物，如何借鑑日本改革成功的經驗，在新舊文化中尋求平衡發展；又希望藉由新式學堂教育達成何種目的等，由此發掘晚清為尋求國家革新的契機，建構新式教育制度的過程。本研究重要發現結果如下：
壹、 晚清政府在甲午一戰後，藉由多種管道仿效日本明治維新的改革經驗，將教育視為富國強兵的手段，並透過官方與民間派員出洋考察與《教育世界》雜誌等，引進新式學堂制度，影響了《奏定學堂章程》內容。
貳、 《奏定學堂章程》的制定，仿效了日本新式學堂制度，也同時參考中國既有之傳統習慣、學科與思想。
參、 晚清在器物、制度與觀念三方面，借鑑了日本教育改革：器物方面，如校舍建築與設施，應考量教學、管理與衛生等因素，並且明確制定學堂之設備規則；制度方面，則包括整體學制的設計，以及各級學堂的課程、師生與校舍的規劃；觀念方面，有對普及教育、兒童與家庭教育等的改變。
肆、 赴日考察報告，作為引進日本新學制的管道，顯示考察者主要是透過參觀日本教育建設成果，參考教科書，並與日本興學相關之重要人士交流教育改革經驗；報告內容包含教育制度、學堂與課程觀摩及興學策略等。
伍、《教育世界》除譯介日本最新教育法令外，也刊載主編等時人對晚清發展新式學堂教育的建議、各省政府對當地的教育政策與發展，以及翻譯世界教育見聞。

關鍵字

羅振玉 ； 吳汝綸 ； 姚錫光 ； 晚清 ； 學制 ； 日本影響

並列摘要

After the Qing-Japanese War, Chinese suddenly realized that the dramatic changes in Japan which reformed over thirty years since Meiji Restoration. Successful experiences of Japan have made the Qing government realize that critical point for the development of a nation relied on the productivity of people, which depended on the level of knowledge upgraded by education. The introduction of a new educational system, therefore, became one of the important dimensions of the reform in late Qing.
Zhang Bai-Xi and Zhang Zhi-Dong, playing critical roles in drafting the new school systems in late Qing Dynasty, have never gone abroad; however, the two School System Codes imitated western school system no doubt. This study finds that sending officials to visit Japan, reading translated books and magazines, etc., were the main strategies to imitate and improve the revolution and development experience in education of Japan since Meiji Restoration, learn western school system, and take them as the key basis to draft the Authorized School Regulations promulgated by Qing government in 1902 and the Presented School Regulations promulgated in 1904.
This study analyzes the three volumes of visit reports on education in Japan by delegates assigned by Zhang Bai-Xi and Zhang Zhi-Dong. Those reports included Yao, Si-Guang’s A Brief of Japanese School System, Luo, Jhen-Yu’s The Diary of Two Months in Japan, Wu, Ru-Lun’s The Records of Travel in Japan. So does Educational World, a magazine on the agenda of the education in China and with a great influence was funded and established by Luo, Jhen-Yu. Through the analysis of those reports and that magazine, there is a more evident reference about the education reform in late Qing. The main findings of this study are as follows:
1. After the Qing-Japanese War, Qing government imitated the experience of Meiji Restoration of Japan via multiple ways; education was as a key means to strengthen the country. Besides, by sending officials to visit Japan and publishing Educational World, etc., the new western school system was introduced and influenced the content of the Presented School Regulations.
2. The conduct of the Presented School Regulations not only followed the example of new school system of Japan, but also tried to include Chinese tradition, subjects, and culture.
3. Modern Japanese experiences were referenced by Qing in three dimensions. In the physical one, teaching, management and sanitation were considered while constructing school buildings and facilities, and concrete rules should be made as well. In the institution one, school system, curriculums, the management of teachers and students, school buildings of all ages were learned. In the thought one, the new ideas about universal education, children education, and family education were introduced.
4. As the main means to learn the new school system of Japan, the delegates visited mainly the
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achievements of educational establishment in Japan, reviewed their textbooks, and exchanged education experience with key figures in the Japanese education reform. Those reports included education policies, classroom and curriculum observation, education tactics, etc.
5. Educational World not only introduced the latest Japanese laws by translation, but also reported the suggestions about developing new school system in the late Qing Dynasty, local education policies, and the translation of education news around the world.

並列關鍵字

Luo,Jhen-Yu ； Wu, Ru-Lun ； Yao, Si-Guang ； Late Qing Dynasty ； School System ； Japan factors

參考文獻

周愚文，《中國教育史綱》，台北：正中，2001年。

陳涵邡，《晚明至清中葉訓蒙理念的探討》，國立臺灣師範大教育學系碩士論文，2011。未出版。

徐韶君，《張之洞與癸卯學制》，淡江大學漢語文化暨文獻資源研究所碩士論文，2008年。

Franke, Wolfgang, The Reform and Abolition of the Traditional Chinese Examination System. （Cambridge MA: Center for East Studies, Harvard University, 1960）

壹、史料