十九世紀清越外交關係之演變

以歷史的連續性來考察十九世紀間清、越關係的演變，可知清法越南戰爭的發生是由一連串清、法、越外交關係演變的結果，從政治文化的角度來看，亦可說是東方的中華世界宗藩秩序觀與西方的殖民帝國主義國際法觀衝突的產物。近代西方國際法中主權國家與「中華世界秩序」宗藩上下從屬原理的國際關係之間，存在著根本的差異，現實和理念相違而產生許多問題的延續與內部的矛盾。長期以來，中華世界是經由階層式(hierarchical)邦交或朝貢的禮儀，維持宗主國中國及其藩屬問某種以最少的代價取得保境安民的和平。面臨西方挑戰，清、越雙方仍維持此一貫的外交禮儀，這或可解釋爲「貧弱的帝國主義」(Impérialisme des pauvres)或者［消極的帝國主義」(passive imperialism)下的產物。阮朝嘉隆帝受清朝敕封國名「越南」，授「越南國王之印」，但不減越南獨立的事實。越南明命朝堪稱國力最盛時期，一方面對清朝的國力與宗主權表示輕視，又不得不遵循禮儀，形成「內尊外卑」的情況。另一方面越南依同樣的型態，建構與鄰邦諸部落之間的國際秩序，儼然以「小中華」自居，而有「自矜自大」的心理。在兩次鴉片戰爭及太平天國之亂等事件中，阮朝看出清朝的積弱與不可依恃，兩國之間的聯絡斷絕更使雙方關係愈加疏遠。自鴉片戰爭以後，中越關係就因爲西洋勢力的登場而大受影響。阮朝對西洋的文化和武力也缺乏了解與自省，因未能建立相應的對策，終於淪爲法國殖民地的命運。總之，法國勢力侵入越南使得此一中華世界秩序崩潰，越南脫離中國轉而承受新的國際秩序和法國的壓迫。中華世界秩序體制也因內部的劇烈變動，隨著諸藩屬國的脫離而難以維持，終至崩解。中國終於屈服於現實，接受西方的國際秩序觀，也就是以條約文字取代禮節儀法，以實力管轄領有原則取代了封貢體制。

關鍵字

中越關係；阮朝；帝國主義；中華世界秩序

並列摘要

In terms of historical continuity, the Sino-French Controversy or the Sino-French War of 1883-85 in Vietnam can be said to have been evolved out of a series of diplomatic relations between the Qing and Nguyen dynasties and the French imperial power during the nineteenth century. As seen from the angle of political culture, it could also be said to be an outcome of the conflict between the Chinese World Order and the emergent International Law system. The definition of sovereignty in the modern International Law and the concept of the traditional Chinese World Order has been an irresolvable paradox; each has its own premises, and this led not only to the conflict of ideals, but also to war. The Chinese World Order observes a normative order instead of the legal norm, which, as a kind of passive imperialism, might be called ”Imperialism des pauvres” (Imperialism of Pauper) as it were. Under it, and through the rituals, international or inter-state peace had once been obtainable at very low cost, and naturally enough, the constituent states were not totally independent, but interdependent in this hierarchical world. Though the Nguyen dynasty accepted the Qing imperial decree as necessary to confer upon it the Kingship of Vietnam, but this did not mean a diminution of its de facto sovereignty or even suzerainty. Vietnam was able to form its own smaller Chinese World Order vis-à-vis that of Great China. The encounter of the West and China, especially after the Opium War, which exposed fully to Vietnam the weaknesses of Qing, had the effect of alienating the two states further. However, the Nguyen dynasty did not succeed in formulating an appropriate policy to manage the incoming occidental forces that overwhelmed the country and caused it to become one of the French colonies. Having witnessed the Chinese World Order being destroyed by Western imperial forces, Vietnam quit the orbit of Chinese Empire and became bound to that of France and the new International Law. For itself, China accepted finally, however reluctantly, the realism of Western International Law, part of which at least means that the legal norm has now taken the place of the old rites.