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  • 學位論文

先秦道家的心術與主術──以《老子》、《莊子》、《管子》四篇為核心

The Practice of Mind and The Kingcraft in Pre-Qin Daoism: Focusing on Laozi, Zhuangzi, and The Four Articles of Guanzi

指導教授 : 陳鼓應 王曉波
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摘要


在先秦道家的範疇架構中,「道」無疑是至高的存在,天、地、人三元結構皆統攝於「道」。道家諸子莫不以「道」為萬物的存在根據,指出自然的「道」乃是人文建構的根基,並在此根基之上,透過「推天道以明人事」的思維方式,展開新的人文建構的論述。而在這一系列回歸於「道」及重新由「道」出發的歷程之中,人無疑是這一歷程中的實踐主體。對於人本身的不同理解,產生了人發展的不同意向的思考,也形構了不同的論述方式與價值取向。於人身之中起了關鍵主導作用的是「心」,而「心」首先要面對的問題,即不能與之相離卻又相異的「身」。主體意識如何看待身體,如何看待心與身的關係,可說是一切自我與他者關係的原型。本文認為,在《老子》之後,對身體觀與身心關係的不同詮釋,展開了黃老學派「外王」與莊子學派「內聖」的不同路線。 「內聖外王之道」可說是莊子學派所獨創之哲學性觀念,受到後世學者的重視。但在先秦古典文獻中,就只在《莊子.天下》篇出現過一次,在當時並沒有受到關注。在先秦,與「內聖」、「外王」意含相近,且較被普遍使用的為「心術」與「主術」。「心術」直接揭示了在「內聖」之由「治身」返身向內「治心」以上通乎「道」的探索歷程中,在一身之中起主導作用的行為主體就是「心」;「主術」則表明了「外王」之由「治身」轉身向外「治國」的統御思維中,起關鍵作用的行為主體是統治者「主」。 「心術」與「主術」,皆與對「道」的領會與展示相關。「心術」指在身體的場域中,心之作為人身之操持者的能力,及如何實踐心作為一身之主的修練方法,亦為人於生命狀態與境界中展示其對「道」的領會的載體;「主術」即謂在國家政體的場域中,人主作為一國之統治者的統御能力,及如何實踐其作為一國之主的統御方法,亦為人主於現實人文建構中展示其對「道」的領會的載體。 為突顯身心關係及其類比對於先秦道家學說發展意向的影響,本文以「先秦道家的心術與主術」為主題,以《老子》、《莊子》、《管子》四篇的文本為探討核心,析論先秦道家思潮在「道」的前提之下,所展開的思想遞嬗與發展。身體中的身心關係,不但是自我與他者的主客關係的原型,且影響著各個面向中自我與他者互動關係的論述,乃至對於中國古典哲學中天、地、三元結構的不同詮釋與不同發展方向。而人的存在不過是萬物之一,因此,本文由道物關係談起,緊扣著身體觀、身心關係、「心術」與「主術」之間環環相扣的類比關係來進行論述。 《老子》中的身體觀與心身關係尚未完全顯題化。雖然如此,已可調理出其展開了由治身而治心而復歸於道的「心術」路線,及由治身而治國而將道落實為聖人無為之治的「主術」路線。藉由「聖人」的中介,後者以前者為基礎,兩者一理貫通。《老子》身體觀與身心關係論述未全的留白之處,及治身與治國並重,由「心術」而「主術」的思維,為道家哲學思潮的發展開啟了一扇奠基於「道」的寬廣大門。莊子學派與稷下黃老學派的發展,便分別由《老子》中解構身心與身心不抱一不離的角度出發,展開了不同意向的論述與發展。 由治心而治身而治國,由「心術」而「主術」。對身體觀與身心關係的不同看法,將導致「心術」與「主術」思想的不同主張。莊子學派與稷下黃老學派同以心為一身之主,因此,致使兩家思想分歧的原點,就在於人身之中的思維主體「心」,對「形」之「流轉」或「安而不移」的不同觀點,及從而演生出對於身心關係的不同見解。 莊子學派認為外在的「形」「流轉」不已,發展出「外化而內不化」的身心關係,意欲解構身心的異化,最終目的在身心的消融;稷下黃老則主張「形」應「安而不移」,展開了「修心而正形」之形神雙養而以心為主的身心調和主張。身心消融與身心調和,可說是《老子》之後身心關係分庭抗禮的兩種發展方向。正由於「心」對於「形」的不同態度的分歧原點,形成了不同的身心關係,與不同的自我與他者的理想關係,從而發展出不同的「心術」與「主術」,最終形成了不同的天、地、人三元結構。 本文認為,《老子》中兼含了治身與治國,兼顧「心術」與「主術」的雙重意向,建構了「道-聖人-天下」之三元結構的思維。而這樣的三元結構,並沒有同時被莊子學派與稷下黃老學派所承繼。 當莊子學派以創新的「真人」為理想人格的名號之際,便已揭示了莊子學派提出了不同於《老子》「道-聖人-天下」的,新的「道-真人-天下」的三元結構。「真人」之真是直承自「『道』之真」而來,主張「道之真以治身,其緒餘以為國,其土苴以治天下」(《莊子.讓王》)。清楚地表明了莊子學派在三元結構中,較不關心指向於「天下」的一面,而主要意向於「道」,且表現出傾向消融三元結構之分立的齊物思想。《莊子》以「主術」為「心術」之餘事,呈現出由主客消融到「道通為一」的形上意向。 另一方面,稷下黃老學派則承繼與轉化了《老子》的三元結構。稷下黃老學派透過以「道」為本去整合與融貫各家所長的哲學方法,重新溝通了形上與形下,天道與人事,自然與人文的雙向關係,更賦予了「聖人」新的概念意含,真正在戰國中後期重新確立了新的、向社會性傾斜的「道-聖人-天下」的三元結構。〈心術〉所言「心術,無為而制竅者也」一句,便已透出《管子》篇的「心術」與「主術」一理貫通,雖多元展開但終將歸趨於一的社會性意向。 本文認為,若由以身體觀與身心關係為起點,經過「心術」與「主術」的展開,而以三元結構為完成的論述脈絡來看,在「道」的根基之上,整合與融貫各家所長,以重新展開「道-聖人-天下」三元結構之論述的黃老道家,才是《老子》道家的嫡傳。也因此,司馬談〈論六家要旨〉所評述的道家,正是「因陰陽之大順,採儒墨之善,撮名法之要」的黃老道家。

關鍵字

老子 莊子 管子四篇 心術 主術 身體觀 身心關係 君主 聖人 真人 逍遙 精氣

並列摘要


In the category structure of Daoism in Pre-Qin period, “Dao” is the highest existence, and it includes the whole ternary structure of heaven, earth, and humankind. Pre-Qin Daoists figured out that “Dao” is the foundation of humanity and civilization, and comprehended the thinking principle— “All the endeavor of human beings should follow the way of Heaven.” Basing on the foundation and following the principle, they tried to construct new theories of the model of humanity and civilization. In the process of returning to “Dao” and starting over from “Dao”, human beings are undoubtedly the subjects who practice “Dao” in this course. The various ways of the understanding about human beings make differences in thinking ways, argumentations, and value orientations. It is mind (xin) that plays the main and key role in a person’s body (shen). Mind represents the consciousness of the subject, and body is the first object which is different but undivided to mind. The mind-body relationship, including mind-shape (xing) relationship, is the prototype of all relationship between self and other. This dissertation tries to justify that the divergent opinions of “outer king” (wai wang) way in Huand-Lao Daoism and “inner sage” (nei sheng) way in Zhuangzi Daoism after Laozi resulted from the different understanding of the body theory and the mind-body/shape relationship. “The way of inner sage and outer king” is an original idea in Zhuangzi, it has great influence on Chinese Philosophy. However, it appears only once in Pre-Qin texts, it didn’t have philosophies’ attention then. The Practice of mind (xin su) and the kingcraft (zhu su) are more popular and relevant ideas to inner sage and outer king in that period. The former manifests that, during the process of practicing inner sage, mind is the subject which tries to comprehend the metaphysical “Dao” by returning to oneself through governing one’s body (implies oneself); the latter announces that, during the process of practicing outer king, king is the subject which attempts to govern a nation by starting from oneself through governing one’s body. “Practice of mind” and “kingcraft” are interrelated, and they both correlate with the method of understanding and presenting “Dao” in Daoism. This dissertation reveals the analogy among the mind-body relationship, the practice of mind, and the kingcraft. The mind-body relationship is not only the prototype of all relationship between self and other, but also influences all the arguments concerned with the interactions between self and other; and further, the interpretations of ternary structure. Hence this dissertation takes The Practice of Mind and The Kingcraft in Pre-Qin Daoism as a main subject, focusing on Laozi, Zhuangzi, and the Four Articles of Guanzi, and attempts to analyze and demonstrate how Daoists’ thinking developed and transformed on the basis of “Dao” in Pre-Qin period. Even if the discussions about the body theory and the mind-body relationship are not explicit enough in Laozi, we can still reveal the dual formulation in it— inwardly the practice of mind and outwardly the kingcraft. Thorough the intermediary of the Sage (sheng ren), the latter is based on the former, and they are interrelated. The implicit thought of the body theory and the mind-body relationship, and the dual formulization in Laozi give ideological extension space to the following Daoists. From mind-governance to body-governance to nation-governance, from the practice of mind to the kingcraft, with different points of view from which mind considers body/shape construct various theories of mind-body/shape relationship, the practice of mind, the kingcraft, and the ternary structure further more. Both Zhuangzi school and Jixia Huang-Lao school regarded mind as the ruler of one’s body, thus, doctrines about how mind considers shape led to the divergence of their thougt. Zhuangzi school declared that shape is always transforming, so they regarded mind-shape relationship as outer-transforming and inner-maintaining (wai hua er nei bu hua). They would like to deconstruct the alienation of the mind-body/shape relationship, and melted the contrariety between mind and body/shape in the end. Hence they turned their thought inward into the practice of mind, and regarded outward kingcraft unnecessarily. They reflected on the specific meaning of life, and revealed the significance of living a free and easy wandering (Xiao Yao You) life with “Dao.” Their arguments are more metaphysical. Jixia Huang-Lao school absorbed the theories of other schools on the basis of the mentioned foundation and principle. They believed that mind and shape co-construct a living body organically, and argued that shape is supposed to be maintaining and stable. They preferred to balance the relationship between mind and body/shape,based on the hypothesis of “mind is the ruler of body”. So they tried to connect the theories of the practice of mind and the kingcraft, and illustrated the consistency between them. Their arguments are more realistic and socialized. With this thread of thought, this dissertation justifies that Huang-Lao Daoism is the direct line of instruction of Laozi. And this is why Ma-Tan Si regarded Huang-Lao school as School of Daoism in On the Pith of the Six Schools (lun liu jia yao zhi).

參考文獻


莊萬壽《道家史論》,臺北:萬卷樓,1990。
林明照〈先秦道家禮樂思想研究〉,臺北:臺灣大學哲學研究所博士論文,2005。
鄭文光《中國天文學源流》,臺北:萬卷樓,2000。
謝明陽〈從《老子》到《管子》四篇看「心」的概念之發展〉,《鵝湖月刊》258卷8期:8-19。
黃漢光《黃老之學析論》,臺北:鵝湖,2000。

被引用紀錄


劉智妙(2009)。《管子》四篇「精氣論」研究〔博士論文,淡江大學〕。華藝線上圖書館。https://doi.org/10.6846%2fTKU.2009.00387
林煒勛(2013)。《管子》的政治思想──以「道」、「法」為核心〔碩士論文,國立臺灣大學〕。華藝線上圖書館。https://doi.org/10.6342%2fNTU.2013.00807
鄭鈞瑋(2012)。《莊子》知識論研究〔博士論文,國立臺灣大學〕。華藝線上圖書館。https://doi.org/10.6342%2fNTU.2012.02321
劉芝慶(2009)。修身與治國-從先秦諸子到西漢前期身體政治論的嬗變〔碩士論文,國立臺灣大學〕。華藝線上圖書館。https://doi.org/10.6342%2fNTU.2009.02358
蔡怡綉(2011)。《鬼谷子》縱橫原理與現代應用〔碩士論文,元智大學〕。華藝線上圖書館。https://www.airitilibrary.com/Article/Detail?DocID=U0009-2801201414585168

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