戰國至漢初的郡制變革

Reform in the Institute of the Commandery from the Warring States Period to the Early Western Han Dynasty

游逸飛(Yi-Fei You)

指導教授 ： 邢義田

國立臺灣大學/文學院/歷史學研究所/博士(2014年)

https://doi.org/10.6342/NTU.2014.00086

摘要

本文根據戰國秦漢簡牘文書、璽印封泥、有銘兵器等史料，指出戰國至漢初的郡曾有軍區、中央外派官署、監察官署等數種面貌。戰國秦郡最初只是軍區。戰國晚期至秦統一之際，郡逐漸獲得管轄郡區內的縣之司法、財政等權力，郡方轄有屬縣，成為在縣之上的政區。戰國秦的縣道官原由內史、廷尉等中央二千石官管轄，郡管轄屬縣的權力多自中央二千石官分割而來，可謂中央外派的二千石官，也就是中央外派官署。秦中央政府為了控制外派官署──郡，在郡設置監御史，以強化中央監察的力度。漢初廢除郡監御史，同時也削弱郡的行政職能，使郡的行政偏於消極監察，較少積極干預縣之行政。郡在西漢中期以前均非嚴耕望所謂的地方政府，漢初諸侯王國甚至可以廢郡，而不影響地方行政的運作。
在郡吏結構上，秦代郡制為守府、尉府、監府三府分立、監察相司的體制；漢初郡制廢除監府後，仍為郡守與郡尉平行、分工制衡的體制。直到西漢中期以後郡方逐漸演變為嚴耕望所謂的長官元首制。郡長官從三頭馬車到二元並立，再到一人獨大，反映郡逐漸從中央集權脫離出來，邁向地方分權。
郡的職權可分軍事、司法、人事、財政等類別探討。軍事上，秦代郡守管理軍備，郡尉管理戍卒，郡之軍權並未由一人獨掌。直到漢文帝時授予郡守虎符，郡守才成為一郡的最高軍事長官。司法上，秦王政時期廷尉方分割出部分權力給郡，使郡得以管轄屬縣司法，此後廷尉直接管轄的屬縣僅限於京畿地區，秦至漢初郡與廷尉的司法地位平行。人事上，秦至漢初郡對屬縣長官及屬吏均有一定的任命權，而中央亦對郡縣長官及屬吏有一定的任命權；此外郡尉擁有相當的人事權，使郡守不能專權。財政上，戰國晚期秦仍由內史直轄全國屬縣財政，秦代郡與內史均可管轄屬縣財政，漢初則只有郡可管轄屬縣財政。西漢中期以前，郡管轄屬縣的權力逐漸趨於完備，是成為地方政府的必要條件。
綜上所述，戰國、秦、漢初的郡吏結構、職權及整體性質均與西漢中期以後有較大區別。戰國至漢初的郡制經過數番變革後，郡才逐漸轉型為地方政府，中央集權與地方分權取得較佳平衡，西漢後期皇帝與郡守共治天下的政治格局亦得而確立。

關鍵字

郡 ； 地方政府 ； 地方分權 ； 包山楚簡 ； 睡虎地秦簡 ； 里耶秦簡 ； 張家山漢簡

並列摘要

Based on Warring States and Han Dynasty bamboo manuscripts, seals, seal lutes, and weapon inscriptions, this paper calls attention to the fact the institution of the commandery (郡) from the Warring States period to the early Western Han was by nature a military area, a local office of the central authority, and a supervisory office. Originally, the Warring States commandery designated a military area. From the late Warring States period to the Qin Dynasty, the commandery gradually gained managerial control over the county administrative unit (縣) through judicial, financial, and other powers, and the commandery became an administrative region that governed the county. The Warring States Qin county unit was originally governed by the kingdom’s central authorities, and the commandery obtained its power directly from the central authorities power. Thus, the commandery was essentially a representative of the central authorities. The central government, in order to control the commandery and strengthen central supervision, set up a censor in the commandery. The early Western Han Dynasty abolished this censor and weakened the administrative power of the commandery, which caused the commandery to develop supervisory authority over the county unit. In sum, Yan Geng Wang’s understanding of the commandery as the seat of local government should be reexamined, at least in the period before the middle of the Western Han Dynasty. Vassal kingdom can even abolish the commandery, without affecting the local administration.
With regard to the internal administrative structure of the commandery, three offices for mutual supervision (governor, lieutenant and censor) were in place during the Qin Dynasty. The early Western Han Dynasty abolished the censor offices, giving the governor and lieutenant equal power and creating a parallel, balanced structure. Not until the later period of Western Han Dynasty did the commandery gradually evolve to become what Yan Geng Wang called an autocratic system. The chief officials of the commandery were reduced from three to two to one, reflecting that the commandery institution gradually decentralized.
Administrative powers within the commandery fall under the classifications of military, judicial, personnel, and finance. On the military side, Qin period governor managed arms, while the lieutenant managed soldiers. Military power of the commandery was not held by one person alone. Not until Emperor Wen granted the Hufu (a military seal) to the governor did the governor become the highest military governor of the commandery. On the judicial side, since the late Warring States period Qin central authorities’ power was limited to the capital area, the central authorities gave some of their power to the commandery, giving the commandery judicial power over the county. Thus, the commandery and the central authorities were parallel. On the personnel side, the commandery had power of appointments to the county, but the central authorities had power of appointments to the commandery and the county. In addition, the commandery Lieutenant had significant power of appointments, so the commandery governor did not have sole power over personnel. On the finance side, the late Warring States period Qin still governed county finance by way of the central authorities. During the Qin Dynasty, the central authorities and the commandery governed county finance. By the early Western Han Dynasty, only the commandery governed county finance. This trend shows that in the period before the mid Western Han Dynasty, the commandery’s power over the county was gradually increased, a necessary condition for local government.
To sum up, the nature of the commandery, its administrative structure, and its authority, during the entire period of the Warring States, the Qin, and the early Western Han Dynasty, were all quite different than during the later period of Western Han Dynasty. After several changes from the Warring States period to the early Western Han, the institution of the commandery gradually transformed to that of a local government. Central authority and local authority attained a more desirable balance. By the late Western Han Dynasty, a political structure was established in which emperors and commandery governors ruled ‘All under Heaven’ together.

並列關鍵字

commandery ； local government ； decentralization ； Baoshan bamboo manuscripts ； Shuihudi Qin bamboo manuscripts ； Liye Qin bamboo manuscripts ； Zhangjiashan bamboo manuscripts

參考文獻

陳偉等，《楚地出土戰國簡冊〔十四種〕》，北京：經濟科學，2009。

馬承源編，《上海博物館藏戰國楚竹書（五）》，上海：上海古籍，2005。

黃怡君、游逸飛、李丞家、林盈君、李協展，〈張家山漢簡《二年律令．置吏律》譯注〉，《史原》復刊第1期，總第22期，2010，臺北，頁287-337。

高震寰、蔡佩玲、張莅、林益德、游逸飛，〈張家山漢簡《二年律令．錢律》譯注〉，《史原》復刊第3期，總第24期，2012，臺北，頁295-352。

王恢，《漢王國與侯國之演變》，臺北：國立編譯館，1984。