從勞動力運用角度看秦漢刑徒管理制度的發展

The Development of Hard Labor Management System in Qin and Han Dynasties：From the Perspective of Labor Utilization

高震寰(Chen-Huan Kao)

指導教授 ： 邢義田

共同指導教授 ： 劉增貴 ； 閻鴻中

國立臺灣大學/文學院/歷史學研究所/博士(2017年)

https://doi.org/10.6342/NTU201702626

摘要

本論文結合出土簡牘與傳世文獻，從勞動力運用的角度出發，論述秦漢刑徒制度的發展。並在此基礎上，探討變化的原因及對社會的影響。
戰國至秦朝的各個政府為了更加善用人民的勞動力，逐步廢除肉刑，採用徒刑。不過，秦代的徒刑不只是勞動刑，同時也具有貶降身份的意義。秦代刑徒等級分為：候、司寇、隸臣妾、鬼薪白粲、城旦舂。其身份差異體現在相異的管理辦法與法律待遇上。秦政府似有意透過上述的差別待遇，在各級刑徒間劃出等級界線。以新的集權國家體制，維持春秋戰國以來尊卑有序的等級社會。
秦代刑徒在官有勞動結構中佔重要位置。里耶秦簡顯示，遷陵縣的刑徒人數可能達到該縣編戶民人口的四分之一以上。雖然遷陵縣是位於戰略要道，人口極少的小縣。從中仍可窺見刑徒勞動對秦政府有高度重要性。秦朝過度的擴張戰爭與土木工程，掩蓋了刑徒數量過多的問題。最終對秦的覆亡起推波助瀾的作用。
漢朝吸取亡秦教訓，採行較寬緩的統治，號稱網漏吞舟之魚。刑徒的數量可能在文帝改制前便大量減少，文帝制定刑期可能只是順應此種趨勢。從漢簡來看，改制後的諸刑徒名稱雖沿襲秦代，但在管理與勞動上都看不出明顯的等級差別。刑徒也不再有專門的主管機構，而是不分等級，散置於各基層單位中。漢政府為了彌補刑徒數量減少造成的勞動真空，逐漸發展出與刑徒有別的官奴婢，以維持皇室貴族的生活品質。在行政系統方面，除了逐步增加有給職外，也大量使用雇傭維持日常行政事務。
由於雇傭比平民親自服役更加經濟實惠。漢政府為了經濟效益，允許甚至鼓勵服役者納資代役。到西漢中期以降，納資代役概念蔓延到刑罰制度上。眾多的贖罪命令使富人往往只需繳錢便能迅速免罰。此種司法上的不公平，造成社會期待酷吏以激烈手段懲辦惡人。但少數酷吏終究無法逆轉司法的結構性問題。至漢末乃有恢復肉刑的呼聲，希望能藉由肉刑立即且無法恢復的特性，使罪犯無法因赦令或贖罪逃避應有的懲罰。

關鍵字

刑徒 ； 勞動 ； 管理 ； 官奴婢 ； 復作 ； 弛刑 ； 肉刑 ； 刑罰 ； 司法

並列摘要

This dissertation discusses the development of the hard labor system of the Qin and Han Dynasties from the perspective of the application of labor force and explores why it changed and its impact on society.
From the Warring States period to the Qin, the government had gradually abandoned the mutilation punishment and expanded hard labor, in order to make better use of labor. However, the hard labor of the Qin Dynasty not only provided labor force, but also pointed to a derogatory identity. The Qin class of hard labor were divided into certain groups: watchman (hou候), robber-guard (sīkou 司寇), bondservant (lichen隸臣) or bondwoman (liqie隸妾), ‘gatherer of fuel for the spirits’ (male) (guǐxīn鬼薪) or‘white-rice sorter’(female) (baican白粲), and wallbuilder(male) (chengdan城旦) or grain-pounder (female) (chōng舂). The difference in identity was reflected in the various management methods and legal treatments.Through differentiated treatments in relation to the different levels of convit laborers, the Qin government used the new centralized state system to maintain the order of the hierarchical society since the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods.
Hard labors was an important labor force in the Qin Dynasty. Liye Qin bamboo slips show that the number of hard laborers in Qianling County might reach more than a quarter of the population of its civilians. Although Qianling County was located in the strategic thoroughfare, in terms of population it was a very small county. Yet the hard labor of the Qin government remained quite important. Excessive expansion of war and civil engineering overshadowed the problem of excessive hard laborers. This problem brought about the destruction of the Qin Dynasty.
The Han Dynasty learnt a lesson from the Qin Dynasty, and adopted a looser rule to reduce hard laborers. The number of hard laborers declined considerably before the reign of Emperor Wen. The legal reform of Emperor Wen might well be a measure in response to this trend. According to the bamboo slips, the hard labor system of Han Dynasty inherited the same nomenclature from the Qin, but had obvious difference in its management and work. There different class of hard labor was no longer controlled by different management methods. Because of the vacuum in labor force caused by the decline in the number of hard laborers, the Han government developed the official slave system, in order to maintain the life quality of the royal family. In terms of administration, the government hired people to maintain daily administrative affairs.
As hiring people was more affordable than conscription, the Han government, for the sake of economic efficiency, allowed and even encouraged the civilian to pay off to avoid the service. After the Western Han Dynasty, this consideration spread to the penalty system. Numerous atonement orders allowed the rich to avoid the punishment by paying the fee. Judicial injustice resulted insocial expectation that merciless official could punish the wicked. But a small number of merciless officials could not reverse the structural problems of justice. In the Later Han Dynasty, many scholars asked for the restoration of mutilation punishment, so that those who violated the law could not escape from the punishment by amnesty or atonement.

並列關鍵字

hard labor ； Labor structure ； management ； official slaves ； serving again ； mutilating punishment ； penalty ； Qin law ； the legal reform of Emperor Wen

參考文獻

渡邊信一郎，《中國古代の財政と國家》，東京：汲古書院，2010。

何茲全，〈三國時期國家的三種領民〉，《食貨半月刊》第一卷第十一期，1935，頁1-5。

吳景超，〈西漢奴婢制度〉，《食貨半月刊》第二卷第六期，1935，頁18-24。

邢義田，〈從張家山漢簡《二年律令》重論秦漢的刑期問題〉，收入氏著《治國安邦—法治、行政與軍事》，北京：中華書局，2011，頁101-124。

邢義田，〈從戰國至西漢的族居、族葬、世業論中國古代宗族社會的延續〉，收入氏著《天下一家—皇帝、官僚與社會》，北京：中華書局，2011，頁396-435。