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  • 學位論文

試論孟德斯鳩的中國專制體制——以黃宗羲的反君主專制思想為參照

A Study of Montesquieu’s Thoughts of China Despotism — Take Huang Tsing-Hsi’s Anti-Despotism Ideology as Reference

指導教授 : 王遠義

摘要


古代中國皇帝制度是否可以視為專制體制,一直都是學術界爭論不休的命題,晚清以降許多學者皆援引大量史料、研究為自身之觀點辯護。 不論是支持或反對方,在論證中國皇帝制度是否為專制政體時,一定會討論孟德斯鳩《論法的精神》中的中國專制體制,因其是將中國視為專制體制的第一人。 除了孟德斯鳩的《論法的精神》之外,在討論中國專制問題時,晚清以降的思想家們,諸如梁啟超、錢穆及蕭公權等人,都有提及黃宗羲在《明夷待訪錄》中所涉及的反專制君權思想,黃宗羲為明末清初大儒,以其所屬時代,能針對古代皇帝制度提出批評,實頗具振聾發聵之效。 不論是孟德斯鳩抑或是黃宗羲的著作,皆為討論專制權力內涵重要的研究資料,但孟德斯鳩在論述中國為專制政體時,在研究方法及取材上有兩個重大的問題,其一,其本身並未親身造訪中國,可能對於中國實際的情況有一知半解之嫌;第二,孟德斯鳩的研究方法是建立三個典型,以比較法突現不同政體模型的性質及原則,而中國代表的專制政體典型是與西方共和及君主政體相對的,也因為必須符合其預先設立的論點蒐集資料,如此一來便又可能因其先驗的立場,而有以偏概全之嫌。 也因這兩個問題,在討論孟德斯鳩的中國專制體制時,必須與中國本土的政治思想家之著作進行互相參照,才能對於中國以及西方的歷史、政治及社會背景、因素能有更深入以及更全面的認識,而本篇論文便是以黃宗羲的《明夷待訪錄》作為主要參照對象,藉此討論中國及西方的政治文化、法律制度及社會發展差異的關鍵為何。 除了與黃宗羲的《明夷待訪錄》進行對比外,嚴復翻譯的《法意》也是重要的參考材料。《法意》一書是嚴復將《論法的精神》翻譯為中文的翻譯版,嚴復在翻譯完之後,也會在其後增加按語,表達自己對孟德斯鳩理論的看法,嚴復身處清末動蕩不安的時期,在翻譯的同時也會將自己對於中國政治文化的見解書寫於按語之中,也是本篇論文重要的參考材料之一。 孟德斯鳩《論法的精神》是以比較法的方式進行體系的建構,本篇論文以孟德斯鳩的原則作為研究前提,為其中國專制的學說以黃宗羲的《明夷待訪錄》為參照比較,補足以往學者對於孟德斯鳩中國研究的批評,並且輔以《法意》中按語的評論,能使中國專制學說能展現更全面、真實的面貌。 雖然許多學者認為孟德斯鳩對於中國的研究在方法及資料選擇上可能有所偏頗,但卻提供了對於中國專制研究的整體概念,一個可以從整體架構觀察中國專制特質的契機,在《論法的精神》的政體理論中,囊括所有社會現象作為研究對象,藉此討論這些社會現象與「法」的關聯性,並且試圖從這些關聯性中,找到一個普遍通用的規律,概括出一般的原則與精神,因此孟德斯鳩的政體學說包含了兩個部分,一個是政體的性質,一個是政體的原則。 孟德斯鳩主要認為專制體制的特質就是無法律規章,只憑一人之意志領導一切,其中的原則就是以恐怖維持其統治。在書中孟德斯鳩便以中國的風俗習慣、倫理道德與法律的關係,論證其專制體制理論,接著也討論中國的法律怎麼運作,以及是否有效的方式可以制衡君王個人的意志。 嚴復是晚清翻譯《論法的精神》中最有系統之人,並且在翻譯後,還會憑藉著個人的思想資源,以自身對於中國傳統政治文化的理解給予註解評論,在嚴復翻譯的《法意》中的按語可以發現,嚴復認為中國與西方政治文化最大的差異就在於法治,不斷的將東西雙方進行比較,探討東西方的法理邏輯、法律展現的權力型態等層面的不同,透過比較,強調其推崇法治反對人治的主張。 孟德斯鳩及嚴復皆認為古代中國皇帝制度是專制體制,最大的特徵就在於沒有一個恆常不變的法律可以依循,皇帝個人的意志過大,如果透過探討黃宗羲《明夷待訪錄》中的反君主專制思想,便可以得知中國傳統政治文化的關鍵所在。 黃宗羲《明夷待訪錄》中認為三代以下的皇帝,將天下視為其私人之產業,使得皇帝與天下百姓的主客關係被顛倒了,使得原本是天下之公,變成一家一姓之私,但是對比孟德斯鳩的理論便可以發現,黃宗羲只是提出了公領域及私領域的兩個概念,中間如何劃分的,彼此之間的權利互動關係並沒有清楚說明,而唯一的出路就是憑藉著皇帝個人的道德觀念,必須實行仁政,仍存聖人治天下的觀念,如果對應回黃宗羲的本體論,便可以發現其思想核心為依循天理方可達到至善的境界,但這必須由有德之人完成,這樣的理論其實仍然是替個人統治提供了理論上的支持。 孟德斯鳩認為專制政體最大的特徵就是統治立法者沒有受到法律的約束,憑著個人意志在行使領導權,但是君主政體的君主必須尊重基本法律,依照法律的規定行使權力;黃宗羲《明夷待訪錄》中,沒有提及法律約束君權的作用,只有提及皇帝必須依照天道而行,依照仁德勤政愛民,不可以以一己之私而恣意暴虐,君權的約束力道似乎只有所謂的天道,以及皇帝本身的道德觀念,洛克天賦人權中法律至上,君權有限的觀念並未出現,雖然也有提及三代之前因為有法,對比三代以下無法,不至於暴亂,但此處的法並不是恆常不變的法,而是期待有法的明君,這仍然凸顯了期待有德性之人,依循天理治理天下。 傳統中國的哲學宇宙觀所遵循的天道、天理,是一種道德觀的討論,應用在政治文化領域,很容易成為個人統治的理論來源,黃宗羲雖然批判了中國皇帝專制的問題,導致主客關係顛倒,但並為涉及權利互動關係,公私領域仍沒有清楚的分界,政治權力仍掌握在皇帝一人之上,並沒有達到民享的程度。 中國古代社會的發展與西方本就不同,這也使得宇宙哲學觀念的差異,西方社會,君王必須遵守恆常不變之法,不可以侵害人與生俱來的權利;而東方社會則是一個有德性之人,依循天理,帶領整個社會達到至善的境界。

並列摘要


Whether the ancient Chinese emperor system can be regarded as a despotism has always been a proposition in academic. Many scholars since the late Qing Dynasty have quoted a large amount of historical data and research to defend their views. Whether it is for support or against the party, when demonstrating whether the Chinese emperor system is a despotism, they will discuss Montesquieu's The Spirit of Law, because it is the first person to regard China as a despotism. In addition to Montesquieu’s The Spirit of Laws, when discussing the issue of Chinese despotism, thinkers from the late Qing Dynasty, such as Liang Qichao, Qian Mu, and K. C. Hsiao, mentioned anti-despotism ideology in Huang Tsung-Hsi's Waiting for the Dawn (Mingyi daifanglu). This essay takes Huang Tsung-Hsi's Waiting for the Dawn (Mingyi daifanglu) as the main reference object to discuss the key to the differences in political culture, legal system and social development between China and the West. Although many scholars believe that Montesquieu’s research on China may be biased in method and material selection, they provide an overall concept of Chinese despotism research, an opportunity to observe the characteristics of Chinese despotism from the overall framework. The The Spirit of Laws includes all social phenomena as the research object in the theory of government, to discuss the relevance of these social phenomena and law, and try to find a universal law, and generalize general principles. Montesquieu’s theory of government includes two parts, one is the nature of the government, and the other is the principle of the government. Yan Fu was the most systematic person in the translation of the The Spirit of Laws in the late Qing Dynasty. After translation, he would rely on his personal ideological resources to give comments and comments on the basis of his own understanding of traditional Chinese political culture. The note in Fa Yi can be found that Yan Fu believes that the biggest difference between Chinese and Western political culture lies in the rule of law. He constantly compares the East and the West, and explores the differences in the legal logic of the East and the West, and the power patterns displayed by the law. To compare, emphasize its advocating the rule of law and opposing the rule of man. Huang Tsung-Hsi's Waiting for the Dawn (Mingyi daifanglu) believes that emperors under three generations regard the world as their private property, which reverses the relationship between the emperor and the people of the world and the subject-object relationship between the emperor and the people of the world. However, comparing Montesquieu’s theory, we can find that Huang Tsung-Hsi only proposed the two concepts of the public domain and the private domain. The emperor’s personal moral concept must implement benevolent governance, and there is still the concept of saint ruling the world. If it corresponds to Huang Tsung-Hsi’s ontology, it can be found that the core of his thought is to follow the principles of heaven to achieve the state of perfection, but this must be done by virtue. Human completion, this theory still provides theoretical support for personal rule. The law of heaven and law followed by the traditional Chinese philosophical universe is a discussion of moral values. When applied to the political and cultural fields, it can easily become the source of the theory of personal rule. Although Huang Tsung-Hsi criticized the issue of the Chinese emperor’s autocracy, leading to the inversion of the subject-object relationship, And because of the interaction of rights, there is still no clear demarcation between the public and private fields, and political power is still in the hands of the emperor, and it has not reached the level of being enjoyed by the people. The development of ancient Chinese society is inherently different from that of the West, which also makes the difference in the philosophical concept of the universe. In Western society, the king must abide by the law of immutability and cannot infringe the inherent rights of people; while the Eastern society is a one A virtuous person leads the whole society to the state of perfection by following the laws of heaven.

參考文獻


參考書目
一. 史料文獻
(一) 中文古籍史料
佚 名,《周易》,收入《斷句十三經經文》,臺北市:開明,1955。
佚 名,《周易》,收入《重刊宋本十三經注疏附校勘記》,依嘉慶20年南昌府學刊本。

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