《晚清「戰爭敘事」研究──譯介、圖像、新小說》

本文聚焦中國晚清「新小說」之「戰爭敘事」，挖掘學界經常忽略的晚清戰爭議題，嘗試跨語言、跨文類的研究方式，觀察譯介軌跡、新式文學典範。以往學界觀察近代「戰爭」，大多研究歷史事實、史觀脈絡、社會意義與文化象徵。學者們關注的「戰爭」也幾乎落於現代以降，探查「戰爭」於現代文學的隱喻。然而，晚清的「戰爭」，非同以往，破除傳統「天下觀」之侷限，開啟嶄新的世界觀。故筆者認為，欲追溯「戰爭敘事」的近代起源，必須回到屢戰屢敗的晚清。「晚清」於中國文學長河中，不僅承先，更是啟後。晚清「戰爭敘事」乃體現中國近代困境、需求、爭逐與融合的重要切入點。若將晚清文學放入「世界」文學的脈絡中，則更能凸顯其擺盪於東／西、新／舊的焦慮和掙扎。清末時期，梁啟超等人登高一呼，企圖改革詩界、小說界。此後「新小說」成為報刊雜誌中的佼佼者，背負啟蒙革新、傳遞新知、出版商業等使命。於此同時，晚清大量派遣留學生，至外國學習西學，翻譯重要哲思學說，譯介域外文學。域外小說傳入中國後，一時間洛陽紙貴，並具體影響近現代文學的發展。本文藉由觀察原著作者／小說至譯者的日／中譯本，與中國作者吸收譯介文學後所創作的「在地化」小說，梳理其中千絲萬縷的互動軌跡，顯露清末多元豐盈的文學風景。本文焦點不在翻譯文字的比對替代或翻譯符碼的轉換，乃憑藉譯介活動，關注晚清文化、思潮、出版、譯／作者間所形成的「文學場域」（Field）。「戰爭」與「戰爭敘事」所帶來的問題／回應，足以代表晚清當時的時代轉折、文學轉向。尤其是近代「新小說」與侷限史實框架的「演義體」、歷史小說不同，開拓了更為積極、自由的創作方式，表達新的書寫典範和意識形態。此外，「圖像」早於小說敘事之前，便已在畫報上勾勒近代「戰爭」的樣貌。「圖像」不同於「文字」載體，彌補了文字敘事之缺漏，補充了近代「戰爭」的不同面向。所以，本文將蒐羅晚清軍事、戰爭的「新小說」和「畫報」，透過詳細的文本分析，鉤沉文本譯介行旅之後，衍生的書寫樣態。盡陳近代「戰爭敘事」的特殊性，包含：世界觀驟變之焦慮、世代交替的危機、軍事強化之需求、愛國精神的構築、性別改革之框架和身體／國體／文體的隱喻等。近代中國「戰爭」究竟自何處來？觀察近代報刊的「戰爭敘事」，顯而易見地中國戰爭主要從「遠方」來。不僅如此，經過譯介、出版的域外戰爭、軍事小說又占據多數。俄國、法國、英國、義國等歐美國家先於中國經歷現代化，創作了相關文學著作。晚清秉持「師夷之長技以制夷」的立場，大幅譯介域外文學，不只從歐美譯介小說，也自日本譯介小說。此外，日本扮演西方與中國「譯介」的中繼站，許多作品由原文先轉譯為日文，再從日文譯介為中文。日本「明治維新」經驗、「武士道」精神、「尚武精神」遂一一來到中國。「戰爭」凸顯了保家衛國的責任及世代傳承的焦慮，期盼中國「少年化」的欲望，使「成長」與「從軍」畫上等式。時人盼望少年能夠離開家庭、學校與情人，投身戰場。自日本傳來的「武士道」精神到了中國，加入濃厚「犧牲」、「祈戰死」的色彩，灌輸小說讀者為國犧牲的觀念，甚至成為「宣傳」從軍的「廣告」。小說除卻輸入愛國精神外，硬體軍備設施也是重點之一，於是出現各種飛天入海的戰爭形式與戰爭武器。作家們幻想陸戰、海戰、空戰的景況，勾勒「未來中國」擁有軍艦、大砲甚至生化武器，在「未來之戰」大敗諸國，重新成為「世界」主宰。看似天馬行空、創意十足的小說，卻一再地暴露現實中的無奈，知識分子、報人對國族衰亡的焦慮和擔憂。晚清「救國保種」的焦慮不只影響了男性，女性更處在「改革」的風尖浪口。國家存亡之際，女性是慈愛的母親、是賢慧的妻子、是孝順的女兒，是照料傷兵的看護，還是上場殺敵的女兵，在國家需要的時候「易裝」、「變身」。晚清報刊一系列「女軍人」傳記，一方面從內部爬梳中國歷史，挖掘花木蘭、梁紅玉、秦良玉的事蹟，豎立「女軍人」典範；一方面向外援引，從日本、法國譯介女軍的故事、聖女貞德傳記，逐步將女性納入國族需求中。女性「易裝」成「女學生」、「女軍人」雖迎合國家利益，也藉機獲得性別鬆動的契機，浮出歷史表面。清末一連串「宣戰」、「迎戰」聲浪下，俄國文豪托爾斯泰的小說《伐林》譯介至中國為《枕戈記》。該小說是彼時鮮見「反思戰爭」的作品，筆觸深刻、敘事細膩。故事運用大量的人物對話，反省戰爭的殘酷無情，征人消耗生命時光，前途茫茫又命在旦夕。縱使，該類型的作品為數不多，卻在晚清戰爭敘事中留下珍貴的印記，超越同時期文學的高度。最後，《點石齋畫報》首刊報導了「中法戰爭」，其「圖像」顯現了戰亂時代裡被「武化」、被「規訓」的各類身體。畫師憑著中國傳統的繪畫筆法和技巧，繪製戰場上各種扭曲、殘破、血腥的屍身，呈現統一、量化的近代軍隊「群體」。爾後，因中法戰爭而延伸爆發的「甲申政變」，涉及中、日、朝三國勢力爭逐。《點石齋畫報》特別設置「朝鮮亂略」專刊報導事件始末，綜合圖像、文字與歷史紀錄的文體方式，發揮針貶「春秋」之能，展現「繡像小說」之趣，反映近代「文體」、「身體」、「國體」的複雜交錯。本文尋覓諸多晚清小說、圖像，研究其譯介軌跡和敘事樣態，於古／今、東／西、新／舊互涉中成就戰爭敘事典範，多姿多彩，嶄露新聲。

關鍵字

晚清；戰爭敘事；譯介；圖像；新小說

並列摘要

This dissertation focused on New Novels’ War Narratives in Chinese late Qing period, to explore war issues in this era that are often disregarded in academia. In addition, it assesses the translation locus and modern literature models using a cross-language and cross-literary genre research method. Academia typically focuses historical facts and context, social significance and cultural symbol when studying modern Wars. However, Wars in late Qing are unlike those in previous era, as it broke the limitation of the traditional “Idea of the World” and revealed a brand new “View of World”. Therefore, we must go back to the repeatedly defeated late Qing in order to trace the beginning of war narratives in modern literature history. In late Qing, Chi-Chao Liang called on poets and novelists to turn a new page in poems and novels. Thereafter, the “New Novel” became the leading star in papers and magazines. Meanwhile, the government sent many students aboard to study Western language and literature. These students translated foreign novels and introduced them back to China, which has made these novels exceedingly popular at the time. Moreover, pictures in pictorials offered images of modern wars, which made up the incomplete description by words and provided different perspectives of wars. This dissertation collected new novels and pictorials of military and war in late Qing to observe the anxiety of dramatic changes in world view, crisis in alternation of generation, demands of military enforcement, cultivation of patriotism, frame of gender revolution, and metaphor of physical body/ state form/ literary genre. War narratives in pictorials presented that wars in China were mostly from afar. The majority of foreign war and military novels were translated and then published. Japan was the introduction relay between West and China, literary works were translated to Japanese and then to Chinese. The achievements of Meiji Restoration were also shared with China after translation. Instead of focusing on comparison and replacement of translation wording or transferring of translation codes, this dissertation presented the turning points of the era and literary through translation and introduction, and the issues and responses brought up by the wars were also revealed in various forms and genres. Wars has highlighted the importance of patriotism, maturing of men during the military service and the importance of procreation during wartime. Japanese Bushido spirit became “sacrifice” and “pray to die in battlefield” in China, which also instilled into readers with the idea of sacrificing for the country and even promoted voluntary military service. The armaments are the focus as well, and the war modes descripted in novels are the projection and imagination of future China, which owns naval ships, artillery and biochemical weapons, and defeats the great powers to become the ruler of the world. Wars in late Qing not only impacted men but also put women on the wave of female revolution. During crises, women not only are loving mothers, virtuous wives and daughters, they could transform to nurses and soldiers when the state is in need. Many biographies of female soldiers, such as Mulan, Hong-Yu Liang and Liang-Yu Chin, were published so they become the role model of female soldiers. At the same time, French female soldiers’ stories such Joan of Arc were translated and introduced to affirm women can be reshaped when the country is in need. This transformation has benefited the country and was also an opportunity to break the stereo gender roles. Upholding the thinking of “Go for Battle” in late Qing, Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy and his “Rubka Iesa” was translated and introduced to China, and was a rarely seen masterpiece written in a rethinking angle. Via the profound brushstroke and sophisticated description, the cruel and callous in war was reflected by conversation between characters. Dianshizhai Pictorial published images of Sino-French War which indicated the weaponized body during the war time. Pictorial artists illustrated not only twisted, broken and bloody bodies, but ruled and united military groups. In the meantime, Korean Kapshin Incident presented texts and pictures altogether and criticized as Spring and Autumn Annals did, which showed genre of Illustrated Fictions and reflected the complicated mixture of Literary form, Body and Nation in modern era.This dissertation collected many modern novels and images, researched the various and styles of war narrative in late Qing, and moreover they have become the models of war narratives after the interactions between old and new, eastern and western.